Austroasiatic languages explained

Austroasiatic
Also Known As:Austro-Asiatic
Region:Southeast, South and East Asia
Familycolor:Austroasiatic
Family:One of the world's primary language families
Protoname:Proto-Austroasiatic
Child1:Munda
Child2:Khasi-Palaungic
Child3:Khmuic
Child4:Mang
Child5:Pakanic
Child6:Vietic
Child7:Katuic
Child8:Bahnaric
Child9:Khmer
Child10:Pearic
Child11:Monic
Child12:Aslian
Child13:Nicobarese
Iso5:aav
Glotto:aust1305
Glottoname:Austroasiatic
Map:Austroasiatic-en.svg
Mapcaption:Austroasiatic languages

The Austroasiatic languages are a large language family spoken throughout Mainland Southeast Asia, South Asia and East Asia. These languages are natively spoken by the majority of the population in Vietnam and Cambodia, and by minority populations scattered throughout parts of Thailand, Laos, India, Myanmar, Malaysia, Bangladesh, Nepal, and southern China. Approximately 117 million people speak an Austroasiatic language, of which more than two-thirds are Vietnamese speakers.[1] Of the Austroasiatic languages, only Vietnamese, Khmer, and Mon have lengthy, established presences in the historical record. Only two are presently considered to be the national languages of sovereign states: Vietnamese in Vietnam, and Khmer in Cambodia. The Mon language is a recognized indigenous language in Myanmar and Thailand, while the Wa language is a "recognized national language" in the de facto autonomous Wa State within Myanmar. Santali is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India. The remainder of the family's languages are spoken by minority groups and have no official status.

Ethnologue identifies 168 Austroasiatic languages. These form thirteen established families (plus perhaps Shompen, which is poorly attested, as a fourteenth), which have traditionally been grouped into two, as Mon–Khmer,[2] and Munda. However, one recent classification posits three groups (Munda, Mon-Khmer, and Khasi–Khmuic),[3] while another has abandoned Mon–Khmer as a taxon altogether, making it synonymous with the larger family.[4]

Austroasiatic languages appear to be the extant autochthonous languages in mainland Southeast Asia, with the neighboring Kra–Dai, Hmong-Mien, Austronesian, and Sino-Tibetan languages having arrived via later migrations.

Etymology

The name Austroasiatic was coined by Wilhelm Schmidt (German: austroasiatisch) based on Latin: auster, the Latin word for "South" (but idiosyncratically used by Schmidt to refer to the southeast), and "Asia".[5] Despite the literal meaning of its name, only three Austroasiatic branches are actually spoken in South Asia: Khasic, Munda, and Nicobarese.

Typology

Regarding word structure, Austroasiatic languages are well known for having an iambic "sesquisyllabic" pattern, with basic nouns and verbs consisting of an initial, unstressed, reduced minor syllable followed by a stressed, full syllable. This reduction of presyllables has led to a variety of phonological shapes of the same original Proto-Austroasiatic prefixes, such as the causative prefix, ranging from CVC syllables to consonant clusters to single consonants among the modern languages. As for word formation, most Austroasiatic languages have a variety of derivational prefixes, many have infixes, but suffixes are almost completely non-existent in most branches except Munda, and a few specialized exceptions in other Austroasiatic branches.[6]

The Austroasiatic languages are further characterized as having unusually large vowel inventories and employing some sort of register contrast, either between modal (normal) voice and breathy (lax) voice or between modal voice and creaky voice.[7] Languages in the Pearic branch and some in the Vietic branch can have a three- or even four-way voicing contrast.

However, some Austroasiatic languages have lost the register contrast by evolving more diphthongs or in a few cases, such as Vietnamese, tonogenesis. Vietnamese has been so heavily influenced by Chinese that its original Austroasiatic phonological quality is obscured and now resembles that of South Chinese languages, whereas Khmer, which had more influence from Sanskrit, has retained a more typically Austroasiatic structure.

Proto-language

See main article: Proto-Austroasiatic language. Much work has been done on the reconstruction of Proto-Mon–Khmer in Harry L. Shorto's Mon–Khmer Comparative Dictionary. Little work has been done on the Munda languages, which are not well documented. With their demotion from a primary branch, Proto-Mon–Khmer becomes synonymous with Proto-Austroasiatic. Paul Sidwell (2005) reconstructs the consonant inventory of Proto-Mon–Khmer as follows:

LabialAlveolarPalatalVelarGlottal
Plosivevoicelesspronounced as /
  • p
/ 		pronounced as /
  • t
/ 		pronounced as /
  • c
/ 		pronounced as /
  • k
/ 		pronounced as /
  • ʔ
/
voicedpronounced as /
  • b
/ 		pronounced as /
  • d
/ 		pronounced as /
  • ɟ
/ 		pronounced as /
  • ɡ
/
implosivepronounced as /
  • ɓ
/ 		pronounced as /
  • ɗ
/ 		pronounced as /
  • ʄ
/
Nasalpronounced as /
  • m
/ 		pronounced as /
  • n
/ 		pronounced as /
  • ɲ
/ 		pronounced as /
  • ŋ
/
Liquidpronounced as /
  • w
/ 		pronounced as /
  • l, *r
/ 		pronounced as /
  • j
/
Fricativepronounced as /
  • s
/ 		pronounced as /
  • h
/
This is identical to earlier reconstructions except for pronounced as / /. pronounced as / / is better preserved in the Katuic languages, which Sidwell has specialized in.

Internal classification

Linguists traditionally recognize two primary divisions of Austroasiatic: the Mon–Khmer languages of Southeast Asia, Northeast India and the Nicobar Islands, and the Munda languages of East and Central India and parts of Bangladesh and Nepal. However, no evidence for this classification has ever been published.

Each of the families that is written in boldface type below is accepted as a valid clade. By contrast, the relationships between these families within Austroasiatic are debated. In addition to the traditional classification, two recent proposals are given, neither of which accepts traditional "Mon–Khmer" as a valid unit. However, little of the data used for competing classifications has ever been published, and therefore cannot be evaluated by peer review.

In addition, there are suggestions that additional branches of Austroasiatic might be preserved in substrata of Acehnese in Sumatra (Diffloth), the Chamic languages of Vietnam, and the Land Dayak languages of Borneo (Adelaar 1995).[8]

Diffloth (1974)

Diffloth's widely cited original classification, now abandoned by Diffloth himself, is used in Encyclopædia Britannica and—except for the breakup of Southern Mon–Khmer—in Ethnologue.

Peiros (2004)

Peiros is a lexicostatistic classification, based on percentages of shared vocabulary. This means that languages can appear to be more distantly related than they actually are due to language contact. Indeed, when Sidwell (2009) replicated Peiros's study with languages known well enough to account for loans, he did not find the internal (branching) structure below.

Diffloth (2005)

Diffloth compares reconstructions of various clades, and attempts to classify them based on shared innovations, though like other classifications the evidence has not been published. As a schematic, we have:

Or in more detail,

Sidwell (2009 - 2015)

Paul Sidwell (2009), in a lexicostatistical comparison of 36 languages which are well known enough to exclude loanwords, finds little evidence for internal branching, though he did find an area of increased contact between the Bahnaric and Katuic languages, such that languages of all branches apart from the geographically distant Munda and Nicobarese show greater similarity to Bahnaric and Katuic the closer they are to those branches, without any noticeable innovations common to Bahnaric and Katuic.

He therefore takes the conservative view that the thirteen branches of Austroasiatic should be treated as equidistant on current evidence. Sidwell & Blench (2011) discuss this proposal in more detail, and note that there is good evidence for a Khasi–Palaungic node, which could also possibly be closely related to Khmuic.[10]

If this would the case, Sidwell & Blench suggest that Khasic may have been an early offshoot of Palaungic that had spread westward. Sidwell & Blench (2011) suggest Shompen as an additional branch, and believe that a Vieto-Katuic connection is worth investigating. In general, however, the family is thought to have diversified too quickly for a deeply nested structure to have developed, since Proto-Austroasiatic speakers are believed by Sidwell to have radiated out from the central Mekong river valley relatively quickly.

Subsequently, Sidwell (2015a: 179)[11] proposed that Nicobarese subgroups with Aslian, just as how Khasian and Palaungic subgroup with each other.

A subsequent computational phylogenetic analysis (Sidwell 2015b)[12] suggests that Austroasiatic branches may have a loosely nested structure rather than a completely rake-like structure, with an east–west division (consisting of Munda, Khasic, Palaungic, and Khmuic forming a western group as opposed to all of the other branches) occurring possibly as early as 7,000 years before present. However, he still considers the subbranching dubious.

Integrating computational phylogenetic linguistics with recent archaeological findings, Paul Sidwell (2015c)[13] further expanded his Mekong riverine hypothesis by proposing that Austroasiatic had ultimately expanded into Indochina from the Lingnan area of southern China, with the subsequent Mekong riverine dispersal taking place after the initial arrival of Neolithic farmers from southern China.

Sidwell (2015c) tentatively suggests that Austroasiatic may have begun to split up 5,000 years B.P. during the Neolithic transition era of mainland Southeast Asia, with all the major branches of Austroasiatic formed by 4,000 B.P. Austroasiatic would have had two possible dispersal routes from the western periphery of the Pearl River watershed of Lingnan, which would have been either a coastal route down the coast of Vietnam, or downstream through the Mekong River via Yunnan.[13] Both the reconstructed lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic and the archaeological record clearly show that early Austroasiatic speakers around 4,000 B.P. cultivated rice and millet, kept livestock such as dogs, pigs, and chickens, and thrived mostly in estuarine rather than coastal environments.[13]

At 4,500 B.P., this "Neolithic package" suddenly arrived in Indochina from the Lingnan area without cereal grains and displaced the earlier pre-Neolithic hunter-gatherer cultures, with grain husks found in northern Indochina by 4,100 B.P. and in southern Indochina by 3,800 B.P.[13] However, Sidwell (2015c) found that iron is not reconstructable in Proto-Austroasiatic, since each Austroasiatic branch has different terms for iron that had been borrowed relatively lately from Tai, Chinese, Tibetan, Malay, and other languages.

During the Iron Age about 2,500 B.P., relatively young Austroasiatic branches in Indochina such as Vietic, Katuic, Pearic, and Khmer were formed, while the more internally diverse Bahnaric branch (dating to about 3,000 B.P.) underwent more extensive internal diversification.[13] By the Iron Age, all of the Austroasiatic branches were more or less in their present-day locations, with most of the diversification within Austroasiatic taking place during the Iron Age.[13]

Paul Sidwell (2018)[14] considers the Austroasiatic language family to have rapidly diversified around 4,000 years B.P. during the arrival of rice agriculture in Indochina, but notes that the origin of Proto-Austroasiatic itself is older than that date. The lexicon of Proto-Austroasiatic can be divided into an early and late stratum. The early stratum consists of basic lexicon including body parts, animal names, natural features, and pronouns, while the names of cultural items (agriculture terms and words for cultural artifacts, which are reconstructible in Proto-Austroasiatic) form part of the later stratum.

Roger Blench (2017)[15] suggests that vocabulary related to aquatic subsistence strategies (such as boats, waterways, river fauna, and fish capture techniques) can be reconstructed for Proto-Austroasiatic. Blench (2017) finds widespread Austroasiatic roots for 'river, valley', 'boat', 'fish', 'catfish sp.', 'eel', 'prawn', 'shrimp' (Central Austroasiatic), 'crab', 'tortoise', 'turtle', 'otter', 'crocodile', 'heron, fishing bird', and 'fish trap'. Archaeological evidence for the presence of agriculture in northern Indochina (northern Vietnam, Laos, and other nearby areas) dates back to only about 4,000 years ago (2,000 BC), with agriculture ultimately being introduced from further up to the north in the Yangtze valley where it has been dated to 6,000 B.P.[15]

Sidwell (2022)[16] [17] proposes that the locus of Proto-Austroasiatic was in the Red River Delta area about 4,000-4,500 years before present, instead of the Middle Mekong as he had previously proposed. Austroasiatic dispersed coastal maritime routes and also upstream through river valleys. Khmuic, Palaungic, and Khasic resulted from a westward dispersal that ultimately came from the Red Valley valley. Based on their current distributions, about half of all Austroasiatic branches (including Nicobaric and Munda) can be traced to coastal maritime dispersals.

Hence, this points to a relatively late riverine dispersal of Austroasiatic as compared to Sino-Tibetan, whose speakers had a distinct non-riverine culture. In addition to living an aquatic-based lifestyle, early Austroasiatic speakers would have also had access to livestock, crops, and newer types of watercraft. As early Austroasiatic speakers dispersed rapidly via waterways, they would have encountered speakers of older language families who were already settled in the area, such as Sino-Tibetan.[15]

Sidwell (2018)

Sidwell (2018)[18] (quoted in Sidwell 2021[19]) gives a more nested classification of Austroasiatic branches as suggested by his computational phylogenetic analysis of Austroasiatic languages using a 200-word list. Many of the tentative groupings are likely linkages. Pakanic and Shompen were not included.

Possible extinct branches

Roger Blench (2009)[20] also proposes that there might have been other primary branches of Austroasiatic that are now extinct, based on substrate evidence in modern-day languages.

Other languages with proposed Austroasiatic substrata are:

John Peterson (2017)[30] suggests that "pre-Munda" ("proto-" in regular terminology) languages may have once dominated the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plain, and were then absorbed by Indo-Aryan languages at an early date as Indo-Aryan spread east. Peterson notes that eastern Indo-Aryan languages display many morphosyntactic features similar to those of Munda languages, while western Indo-Aryan languages do not.

Writing systems

Other than Latin-based alphabets, many Austroasiatic languages are written with the Khmer, Thai, Lao, and Burmese alphabets. Vietnamese divergently had an indigenous script based on Chinese logographic writing. This has since been supplanted by the Latin alphabet in the 20th century. The following are examples of past-used alphabets or current alphabets of Austroasiatic languages.

External relations

Austric languages

See main article: Austric languages. Austroasiatic is an integral part of the controversial Austric hypothesis, which also includes the Austronesian languages, and in some proposals also the Kra–Dai languages and the Hmong–Mien languages.[36]

Hmong-Mien

Several lexical resemblances are found between the Hmong-Mien and Austroasiatic language families (Ratliff 2010), some of which had earlier been proposed by Haudricourt (1951). This could imply a relation or early language contact along the Yangtze.[37]

According to Cai (et al. 2011), Hmong–Mien people are genetically related to Austroasiatic speakers, and their languages were heavily influenced by Sino-Tibetan, especially Tibeto-Burman languages.[38]

Indo-Aryan languages

It is suggested that the Austroasiatic languages have some influence on Indo-Aryan languages including Sanskrit and middle Indo-Aryan languages. Indian linguist Suniti Kumar Chatterji pointed that a specific number of substantives in languages such as Hindi, Punjabi and Bengali were borrowed from Munda languages. Additionally, French linguist Jean Przyluski suggested a similarity between the tales from the Austroasiatic realm and the Indian mythological stories of Matsyagandha (Satyavati from Mahabharata) and the Nāgas.[39]

Austroasiatic migrations and archaeogenetics

See also: Peopling of Southeast Asia. Mitsuru Sakitani suggests that Haplogroup O1b1, which is common in Austroasiatic people and some other ethnic groups in southern China, and haplogroup O1b2, which is common in today's Japanese and Koreans, are the carriers of early rice agriculture from southern China.[40] Another study suggests that the haplogroup O1b1 is the major Austroasiatic paternal lineage and O1b2 the "para-Austroasiatic" lineage of the Koreans and Yayoi people.[41]

A full genomic study by Lipson et al. (2018) identified a characteristic lineage that can be associated with the spread of Austroasiatic languages in Southeast Asia and which can be traced back to remains of Neolithic farmers from Mán Bạc in the Red River Delta in northern Vietnam, and to closely related Ban Chiang and Vat Komnou remains in Thailand and Cambodia respectively. This Austroasiatic lineage can be modeled as a sister group of the Austronesian peoples with significant admixture (ca. 30%) from a deeply diverging eastern Eurasian source (modeled by the authors as sharing some genetic drift with the Onge, a modern Andamanese hunter-gatherer group) and which is ancestral to modern Austroasiatic-speaking groups of Southeast Asia such as the Mlabri and the Nicobarese, and partially to the Austroasiatic Munda-speaking groups of South Asia (e.g. the Juang). Significant levels of Austroasiatic ancestry were also found in Austronesian-speaking groups of Sumatra, Java, and Borneo.[42] Austroasiatic-speaking groups in southern China (such as the Wa and Blang in Yunnan) predominatly carry the same Mainland Southeast Asian Neolithic farmer ancestry, but with additional geneflow from northern and southern East Asian lineages that can be associated with the spread of Tibeto-Burman and Kra-Dai languages, respectively.[43]

Migration into India

According to Chaubey et al., "Austro-Asiatic speakers in India today are derived from dispersal from Southeast Asia, followed by extensive sex-specific admixture with local Indian populations." According to Riccio et al., the Munda peoples are likely descended from Austroasiatic migrants from Southeast Asia.[44]

According to Zhang et al., Austroasiatic migrations from Southeast Asia into India took place after the Last Glacial Maximum, circa 10,000 years ago. Arunkumar et al., suggest Austroasiatic migrations from Southeast Asia occurred into Northeast India 5.2 ± 0.6 kya and into East India 4.3 ± 0.2 kya.[45]

Sources

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Austroasiatic. www.languagesgulper.com. en. 15 October 2017. 29 March 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190329085717/http://languagesgulper.com/eng/Austroasiatic.html. live.
  2. Bradley (2012) notes, MK in the wider sense including the Munda languages of eastern South Asia is also known as Austroasiatic.
  3. Diffloth 2005
  4. Sidwell 2009
  5. Schmidt . Wilhelm . 1906 . Die Mon–Khmer-Völker, ein Bindeglied zwischen Völkern Zentralasiens und Austronesiens ('[The Mon–Khmer Peoples, a Link between the Peoples of Central Asia and Austronesia') |journal=Archiv für Anthropologie |volume=5 |pages=59–109].
  6. Alves 2014, 2015
  7. Diffloth, Gérard (1989). "Proto-Austroasiatic creaky voice."
  8. Roger Blench, 2009. Are there four additional unrecognised branches of Austroasiatic? Presentation at ICAAL-4, Bangkok, 29–30 October. Summarized in Sidwell and Blench (2011).
  9. Sidwell (2005) casts doubt on Diffloth's Vieto-Katuic hypothesis, saying that the evidence is ambiguous, and that it is not clear where Katuic belongs in the family.
  10. Sidwell, Paul, and Roger Blench. 2011. "The Austroasiatic Urheimat: the Southeastern Riverine Hypothesis ." Enfield, NJ (ed.) Dynamics of Human Diversity, 317–345. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.
  11. Sidwell, Paul. 2015a. "Austroasiatic classification." In Jenny, Mathias and Paul Sidwell, eds (2015). The Handbook of Austroasiatic Languages. Leiden: Brill.
  12. Sidwell, Paul. 2015b. A comprehensive phylogenetic analysis of the Austroasiatic languages . Presented at Diversity Linguistics: Retrospect and Prospect, 1–3 May 2015 (Leipzig, Germany), Closing conference of the Department of Linguistics at the Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology.
  13. Sidwell, Paul. 2015c. Phylogeny, innovations, and correlations in the prehistory of Austroasiatic. Paper presented at the workshop Integrating inferences about our past: new findings and current issues in the peopling of the Pacific and South East Asia, 22–23 June 2015, Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History, Jena, Germany.
  14. Sidwell, Paul. 2018. Austroasiatic deep chronology and the problem of cultural lexicon. Paper presented at the 28th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, held 17–19 May 2018 in Kaohsiung, Taiwan.
  15. Blench, Roger. 2017. Waterworld: lexical evidence for aquatic subsistence strategies in Austroasiatic . Presented at ICAAL 7, Kiel, Germany.
  16. Sidwell. Paul. Austroasiatic Dispersal: the AA "Water-World" Extended. Alves. Mark. Sidwell. Paul. Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society: Papers from the 30th Conference of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society (2021). 15. 3. 28 January 2022. 1836-6821. 14 February 2022. 10.5281/zenodo.5773247. 95–111. 30 January 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220130075639/https://evols.library.manoa.hawaii.edu/handle/10524/52498. live.
  17. Sidwell, Paul. 2021. Austroasiatic Dispersal: the AA "Water-World" Extended . SEALS 2021 . (Video)
  18. Sidwell, Paul. 2018. Austroasiatic deep chronology and the problem of cultural lexicon . Paper presented at the 28th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. Kaohsiung, Taiwan. (accessed 16 December 2020).
  19. Book: Sidwell, Paul. The Languages and Linguistics of Mainland Southeast Asia. Classification of MSEA Austroasiatic languages. De Gruyter. 9 August 2021. 10.1515/9783110558142-011. 179–206. 9783110558142. 242599355.
  20. Blench, Roger. 2009. "Are there four additional unrecognised branches of Austroasiatic? ."
  21. Sidwell, Paul. 2006. "Dating the Separation of Acehnese and Chamic By Etymological Analysis of the Aceh-Chamic Lexicon ." In The Mon-Khmer Studies Journal, 36: 187–206.
  22. Sidwell, Paul. 2007. "The Mon-Khmer Substrate in Chamic: Chamic, Bahnaric and Katuic Contact ." In SEALS XII Papers from the 12th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 2002, edited by Ratree Wayland et al.. Canberra, Australia, 113-128. Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University.
  23. Larish, Michael David. 1999. The Position of Moken and Moklen Within the Austronesian Language Family. Doctoral dissertation, University of Hawai'i at Mānoa.
  24. Blench, Roger. 2010. "Was there an Austroasiatic Presence in Island Southeast Asia prior to the Austronesian Expansion? " In Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association, Vol. 30.
  25. Adelaar, K.A. 1995. Borneo as a cross-roads for comparative Austronesian linguistics . In P. Bellwood, J.J. Fox and D. Tryon (eds.), The Austronesians, pp. 81-102. Canberra: Australian National University.
  26. Kaufman, Daniel. 2018. Between mainland and island Southeast Asia: Evidence for a Mon-Khmer presence in Borneo. Ronald and Janette Gatty Lecture Series. Kahin Center for Advanced Research on Southeast Asia, Cornell University. (handout / slides)
  27. Blench, Roger. 2013. Rongic: a vanished branch of Austroasiatic . m.s.
  28. Thurgood, Graham. 1992. "The aberrancy of the Jiamao dialect of Hlai: speculation on its origins and history ". In Ratliff, Martha S. and Schiller, E. (eds.), Papers from the First Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society, 417–433. Arizona State University, Program for Southeast Asian Studies.
  29. van Reijn, E. O. (1974). "Some Remarks on the Dialects of North Kerintji: A link with Mon-Khmer Languages." Journal of the Malaysian Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, 31, 2: 130–138. .
  30. Peterson, John (2017). "The prehistorical spread of Austro-Asiatic in South Asia ". Presented at ICAAL 7, Kiel, Germany.
  31. Web site: Vietnamese Chu Nom script . Omniglot.com . 11 March 2012 . 2 February 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120202080950/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/chunom.htm . live .
  32. Web site: Khmer/Cambodian alphabet, pronunciation and language . Omniglot.com . 11 March 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120213191456/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/khmer.htm . 13 February 2012 . dead .
  33. Web site: Santali alphabet, pronunciation and language . Omniglot.com . 11 March 2012 . 5 November 2010 . https://web.archive.org/web/20101105053656/http://www.omniglot.com/writing/santali.htm . live .
  34. Web site: N4259: Final proposal for encoding the Warang Citi script in the SMP of the UCS. https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.unicode.org/L2/L2012/12118-n4259-warang-citi.pdf . 9 October 2022 . live. Everson. Michael. Michael Everson. 19 April 2012. 20 August 2016.
  35. Web site: Sorang Sompeng script . Omniglot.com . 18 June 1936 . 11 March 2012 . 27 April 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210427214234/https://omniglot.com/writing/sorangsompeng.htm . live .
  36. Book: Reid . Lawrence A. . 2009 . Brown . Keith . Ogilvie . Sarah . Concise Encyclopaedia of Languages of the World . Elsevier . Oxford . 92–94 . Austric Hypothesis .
  37. Haudricourt, André-Georges. 1951. Introduction à la phonologie historique des langues miao-yao [An introduction to the historical phonology of the Miao-Yao languages]. Bulletin de l'École Française d'Extrême-Orient 44(2). 555–576.
  38. Consortium. the Genographic. Li. Hui. Jin. Li. Huang. Xingqiu. Li. Shilin. Wang. Chuanchao. Wei. Lanhai. Lu. Yan. Wang. Yi. 31 August 2011. Human Migration through Bottlenecks from Southeast Asia into East Asia during Last Glacial Maximum Revealed by Y Chromosomes. PLOS ONE. en. 6. 8. e24282. 10.1371/journal.pone.0024282. 1932-6203. 3164178. 21904623. 2011PLoSO...624282C. free.
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  40. 崎谷満『DNA・考古・言語の学際研究が示す新・日本列島史』（勉誠出版　2009年）　
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  42. Lipson M, Cheronet O, Mallick S, Rohland N, Oxenham M, Pietrusewsky M, Pryce TO, Willis A, Matsumura H, Buckley H, Domett K, Nguyen GH, Trinh HH, Kyaw AA, Win TT, Pradier B, Broomandkhoshbacht N, Candilio F, Changmai P, Fernandes D, Ferry M, Gamarra B, Harney E, Kampuansai J, Kutanan W, Michel M, Novak M, Oppenheimer J, Sirak K, Stewardson K, Zhang Z, Flegontov P, Pinhasi R, Reich D . 6 . Ancient genomes document multiple waves of migration in Southeast Asian prehistory . Science . 361 . 6397 . 92–95 . 2018 . 29773666 . 6476732 . 10.1126/science.aat3188 . 2018Sci...361...92L .
  43. Guo. Jianxin. Wang. Weitao. Zhao. Kai. Li. Guangxing. He. Guanglin. Zhao. Jing. Yang. Xiaomin. Chen. Jinwen. Zhu. Kongyang. Wang. Rui. Ma. Hao. Genomic insights into Neolithic farming-related migrations in the junction of east and southeast Asia. American Journal of Biological Anthropology. 2022. 177. 2. 328–342. en. 10.1002/ajpa.24434. 244155341. 2692-7691. In our study, we found the sharing of a large amount of ancestry (>50%) among the Vietnam Late Neolithic ancients, Wa_L and Blang_X, indicating the Yunnan Austroasiatic populations had been influenced both linguistically and genetically by the expansion of Austroasiatic groups from mainland SEA.. 5 January 2022. 5 January 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20220105011003/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/ajpa.24434. live.
  44. Riccio . M. E. . 39428816 . etal . 2011 . The Austroasiatic Munda population from India and Its enigmatic origin: a HLA diversity study . Human Biology . 83 . 3 . 405–435 . 21740156 . 10.3378/027.083.0306 . 41466748.
  45. Arunkumar . G. . etal . 2015 . A late Neolithic expansion of Y chromosomal haplogroup O2a1-M95 from east to west . Journal of Systematics and Evolution . 53 . 6. 546–560 . 10.1111/jse.12147 . 83103649 . free .

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