Australian English phonology explained

pronounced as /notice/Australian English (AuE) is a non-rhotic variety of English spoken by most native-born Australians. Phonologically, it is one of the most regionally homogeneous language varieties in the world. Australian English is notable for vowel length contrasts which are absent from most English dialects.

The Australian English vowels pronounced as //ɪ//, pronounced as //e//, pronounced as //eː// and pronounced as //oː// are noticeably closer (pronounced with a higher tongue position) than their contemporary Received Pronunciation equivalents. However, a recent short-front vowel chain shift has resulted in younger generations having lower positions than this for the former three vowels.^[1]

Vowels

Phoneme !! rowspan="2"

Lexical set !	Phonetic realization
Cultivated	General	Broad
pronounced as //iː//		pronounced as /[ɪi]/	pronounced as /[ɪ̈i]/	pronounced as /[əːɪ]/
pronounced as //ʉː//		pronounced as /[ʊu]/	pronounced as /[ɪ̈ɯ, ʊʉ]/	pronounced as /[əːʉ]/
pronounced as //æɪ//		pronounced as /[ɛɪ]/	pronounced as /[æ̠ɪ]/	pronounced as /[æ̠ːɪ, a̠ːɪ]/
pronounced as //əʉ//		pronounced as /[ö̞ʊ]/	pronounced as /[æ̠ʉ]/	pronounced as /[æ̠ːʉ, a̠ːʉ]/
pronounced as //ɑɪ//		pronounced as /[a̠e]/	pronounced as /[ɒe]/	pronounced as /[ɒːe]/
pronounced as //æɔ//		pronounced as /[a̠ʊ]/	pronounced as /[æo]/	pronounced as /[ɛːo, ɛ̃ːɤ]/

The vowels of Australian English can be divided according to length. The long vowels, which include monophthongs and diphthongs, mostly correspond to the tense vowels used in analyses of Received Pronunciation (RP) as well as its centring diphthongs. The short vowels, consisting only of monophthongs, correspond to the RP lax vowels. There exist pairs of long and short vowels with overlapping vowel quality giving Australian English phonemic length distinction.^[2]

There are two families of phonemic transcriptions of Australian English: revised ones, which attempt to more accurately represent the phonetic sounds of Australian English; and the Mitchell-Delbridge system, which is minimally distinct from Jones' original transcription of RP. This page uses a revised transcription based on Durie and Hajek (1994) and Harrington, Cox and Evans (1997) but also shows the Mitchell-Delbridge equivalents as this system is commonly used for example in the Macquarie Dictionary and much literature, even recent.

! colspan="2"

Front	Central		Back
Close	pronounced as /link/				pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/
Mid	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/
Open	pronounced as /link/	(pronounced as /link/)	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/
Diphthongs	pronounced as /ɪə   æɪ   ɑɪ   oɪ   iː   æɔ   əʉ   ʉː/

• As with General American, the weak vowel merger is nearly complete in Australian English: unstressed pronounced as //ɪ// is merged with pronounced as //ə// (schwa) except before a following velar. New Zealand English takes it a step further and merges all instances of pronounced as //ɪ// with pronounced as //ə// (even in stressed syllables), which is why the New Zealand pronunciation of the dish name fish and chips as pronounced as //ˈfəʃ ən ˈtʃəps// sounds like 'fush and chups' to Australians. In Australian English, pronounced as //ə// is restricted to unstressed syllables, as in most dialects.
• The trap-bath split is a regional variable in Australia, with the vowel pronounced as //aː// being more common in South Australia than elsewhere. This is due to the fact that that state was settled later than the rest of Australia, when the lengthened pronunciation was already a feature of London speech. Research done by shows that the word graph is pronounced with the vowel (pronounced as //ɡɹaːf//) by 86% speakers from Adelaide, whereas 100% speakers from Hobart use the vowel in this word: pronounced as //ɡɹæf//. There are words in which the vowel is much less common; for instance, Crystal reports that both the word grasp and the verb to contrast are most commonly pronounced with the vowel: pronounced as //ɡɹaːsp//, pronounced as //kənˈtɹaːst//. This also affects the pronunciation of some placenames; Castlemaine is locally pronounced as //ˈkæsəlmæɪn//, but speakers from outside of Victoria often pronounce that name pronounced as //ˈkaːsəlmæɪn// by analogy to the noun castle in their local accent.

Monophthongs

• The target for pronounced as //ɪ// is closer to cardinal pronounced as /link/ than in other dialects.^[3] The aforementioned phrase fish and chips as pronounced by an Australian (pronounced as /[ˈfiʃ ən ˈtʃips]/ in narrow transcription) can sound a lot like feesh and cheeps to speakers of New Zealand English and other dialects, whereas words such as bit and sit may sound like beat and seat, respectively.
• The sound pronounced as //ɪə// is usually pronounced as a diphthong (or disyllabically pronounced as /[iːə]/, like) only in open syllables. In closed syllables, it is distinguished from pronounced as //ɪ// primarily by length and from pronounced as //iː// by the significant onset in the latter.
• pronounced as //e// tends to be higher than the corresponding vowel in General American or RP. The typical realization is close-mid pronounced as /link/, although for some speakers it may be even closer pronounced as /link/ (according to John Wells, this pronunciation can occur only in Broad varieties). A recent change is the lowering of pronounced as //e// to the pronounced as /link/ region.
• For some Victorian speakers, pronounced as //e// has merged with pronounced as //æ// in pre-lateral environments, and thus the words celery and salary are homophonous as pronounced as //ˈsæləɹiː//. See salary-celery merger.
• The sound pronounced as //æː// is traditionally transcribed and analysed the same as the short pronounced as //æ//, but minimal pairs exist in at least some Australians' speech.^{[4] [5]} It is found in the adjectives bad, mad, glad and sad, before the pronounced as //ɡ// sound (for example, hag, rag, bag) and also in content words before pronounced as //m// and pronounced as //n// in the same syllable (for example, ham, tan, plant).^[6] In South Australia, plant is usually pronounced with the vowel sound pronounced as //aː//, as in rather and father. In some speakers, especially those with the broad accent, pronounced as //æː// and pronounced as //æ// will be shifted toward pronounced as /link/ and pronounced as /link/, respectively.^[7]
• There is æ-tensing before a nasal consonant. The nasal sounds create changes in preceding vowels because air can flow into the nose during the vowel. Nasal consonants can also affect the articulation of a vowel. Thus, for many speakers, the pronounced as //æː// vowel in words like jam, man, dam and hand is shifted towards pronounced as /[eː]/. This is also present in General American and Cockney English.^[8] Length has become the main difference between words like 'ban' and 'Ben', with 'ban' pronounced pronounced as /[beːn]/ and 'Ben' pronounced pronounced as /[ben]/.^[9]

• pronounced as //æ// is pronounced as open front pronounced as /link/ by many younger speakers.
• As with New Zealand English, the / vowel in words like park pronounced as //paːk//, calm pronounced as //kaːm// and farm pronounced as //faːm// is central (in the past even front)^[2] in terms of tongue position and non-rhotic. This is the same vowel sound used by speakers of the Boston accent of North Eastern New England in the United States. Thus the phrase park the car is said identically by a New Zealander, Australian or Bostonian.^[10] This vowel is only distinguished from the vowel by length, thus: park pronounced as //paːk// versus puck pronounced as //pak//.
• The phoneme pronounced as //ɜː// is pronounced at least as high as pronounced as //eː// (pronounced as /link/), and has a lowered F3 that might indicate that it is rounded pronounced as /link/.^[11] The (IPA|ɜ) glyph is used — rather than (IPA|ɘ) or (IPA|ɵ) — as most revisions of the phonemic orthography for Australian English predate the 1993 modifications to the International Phonetic Alphabet. At the time, (IPA|ɜ) was suitable for any mid central vowel, rounded or unrounded.
• The schwa pronounced as //ə// is a highly variable sound. For this reason, it is not shown on the vowel charts to the right. The word-final schwa in comma and letter is often lowered to pronounced as /link/ so that it strongly resembles the vowel pronounced as //a//: pronounced as /[ˈkɔmɐ, ˈleɾɐ]/. As the latter is a checked vowel (meaning that it cannot occur in a final stressed position) and the lowering of pronounced as //ə// is not categorical (meaning that those words can be also pronounced pronounced as /[ˈsəʉfə]/ and pronounced as /[ˈbeɾə]/, whereas strut is never pronounced pronounced as /[stɹət]/), this sound is considered to belong to the pronounced as //ə// phoneme. The word-initial schwa (as in enduring pronounced as //ənˈdʒʉːɹɪŋ//) is typically mid pronounced as /link/: pronounced as /[ənˈdʒʉːɹɪŋ]/. In the word-internal position (as in bottom pronounced as //ˈbɔtəm//), pronounced as //ə// is raised to pronounced as /link/: pronounced as /[ˈbɔɾɨ̞m]/, as in American English roses pronounced as /[ˈɹoʊzɨ̞z]/. Thus, the difference between the pronounced as //ə// of paddock and the pronounced as //ɪ// of panic lies in the backness of the vowels, rather than their height: pronounced as /[ˈpædɨ̞k, ˈpænik]/. In the rest of the article, those allophones of pronounced as //ə// are all transcribed with the broad symbol (IPA|ə): pronounced as /[ˈkɔmə]/ etc. pronounced as //ɪ// is also broadly transcribed with (IPA|ɪ): pronounced as /[ˈpænɪk]/, which does not capture its closeness.

Diphthongs

• The vowel pronounced as //iː// has an onset pronounced as /[ɪi̯]/, except before laterals. The onset is often lowered to pronounced as /[əi]/, so that beat is pronounced as /[bəit]/ for some speakers.
• As in American English and modern RP, the final vowel in words like happy and city is pronounced as pronounced as //iː// (happee, citee), not as pronounced as //ɪ// (happy-tensing).^[12]
• In some parts of Australia, a fully backed allophone of pronounced as //ʉː//, transcribed pronounced as /[ʊː]/, is common before pronounced as //l//. As a result, the pairs full/fool and pull/pool differ phonetically only in vowel length for those speakers. The usual allophone is further forward in New South Wales than Victoria. It is moving further forwards, however, in both regions at a similar rate.
• The second elements of pronounced as //æɪ// and pronounced as //oɪ// on the one hand and pronounced as //ɑɪ// on the other are somewhat different. The first two approach the vowel pronounced as //ɪ//, whereas the ending point of pronounced as //ɑɪ// is more similar to the vowel pronounced as /link/, which is why it tends to be written with (IPA|ɑe) in modern sources. John Wells writes this phoneme pronounced as //ɑɪ//, with the same ending point as pronounced as //æɪ// and pronounced as //oɪ// (which he writes with (IPA|ʌɪ) and (IPA|ɔɪ)). However, the second element of pronounced as //ɑɪ// is not nearly as different from that of the other fronting-closing diphthongs as the ending point of pronounced as //æɔ// is from that of pronounced as //əʉ//, which is the reason why (IPA|ɑɪ) is used in this article.
• The first element of pronounced as //ɑɪ// may be raised and rounded in broad accents.
• The first element of pronounced as //æɪ// is significantly lower pronounced as /[a̠ɪ]/ than in many other dialects of English.
• There is significant allophonic variation in pronounced as //əʉ//, including a backed allophone pronounced as /[ɔʊ]/ before a word-final or preconsonantal pronounced as //l//. The first part of this allophone is in the same position as pronounced as //ɔ//, but pronounced as /[ɔʊ]/ differs from it in that it possesses an additional closing glide, which also makes it longer than pronounced as //ɔ//.
• pronounced as //əʉ// is shifted to pronounced as /[ɔy]/ among some speakers. This realisation has its roots in South Australia but is becoming more common among younger speakers across the country.
• The phoneme pronounced as //ʊə// is rare and almost extinct. Most speakers consistently use pronounced as /[ʉːə]/ or pronounced as /[ʉː]/ (before pronounced as //ɹ//) instead. Many cases of RP pronounced as //ʊə// are pronounced instead with the pronounced as //oː// phoneme in Australian English. "pour" and "poor", "more" and "moor" and "shore" and "sure" are homophones, but "tore" and "tour" remain distinct.

Examples of vowels

Phoneme	Example words	Mitchell- Delbridge	OED
pronounced as /link/	strut, bud, hud; cup	pronounced as /ʌ/	pronounced as /ʌ/
pronounced as /link/	bath, palm, start, bard, hard; father	pronounced as /a/	pronounced as /ʌː/
pronounced as //ɑɪ//	price, bite, hide	pronounced as /aɪ/	pronounced as /ɑe/
pronounced as /link/	trap, lad, had	pronounced as /æ/	pronounced as /æ/
pronounced as /link/	bad, tan	pronounced as /æ/	pronounced as /æ/
pronounced as //æɪ//	face, bait, hade	pronounced as /eɪ/	pronounced as /æe/
pronounced as //æɔ//	mouth, bowed, how’d	pronounced as /aʊ/	pronounced as /æɔ/
pronounced as /link/	dress, bed, head	pronounced as /ɛ/	pronounced as /e/
pronounced as /link/	square, bared, haired	pronounced as /ɛə/	pronounced as /eə/
pronounced as /link/	nurse, bird, heard	pronounced as /ɜ/	pronounced as /ɜː/
pronounced as /link/	about, winter; alpha	pronounced as /ə/	pronounced as /ə/
pronounced as //əʉ//	goat, bode, hoed	pronounced as /oʊ/	pronounced as /oʊ/
pronounced as /link/	kit, bid, hid	pronounced as /ɪ/	pronounced as /ɪ/
pronounced as /link/	near, beard, hear; here	pronounced as /ɪə/	pronounced as /ɪə/
pronounced as //iː//	fleece, bead, heat	pronounced as /i/	pronounced as /iː/
	happy		pronounced as /i/
pronounced as /link/	thought, north, sure, board, hoard, poor; hawk, force	pronounced as /ɔ/	pronounced as /ɔː/
pronounced as //oɪ//	choice, boy; voice	pronounced as /ɔɪ/	pronounced as /oɪ/
pronounced as /link/	lot, cloth, body, hot	pronounced as /ɒ/	pronounced as /ɔ/
pronounced as /link/	goose, boo, who'd	pronounced as /u/	pronounced as /uː/
pronounced as /link/	foot, hood	pronounced as /ʊ/	pronounced as /ʊ/

• One needs to be very careful of the symbol pronounced as //ɔ//, which represents different vowels: the vowel in the Harrington, Cox and Evans (1997) system (transcribed pronounced as //ɒ// in the other system), but the vowel in the Mitchell-Delbridge system (transcribed pronounced as //oː// in the other system).^[6]
• The fourth column is the OED transcription, taken from the OED website.^[13]

It differs somewhat from the ad hoc Wikipedia transcription used in this article. In a few instances the OED example word differs from the others given in this table; these are appended at the end of the second column following a semicolon.

Consonants

Australian English consonants are similar to those of other non-rhotic varieties of English. A table containing the consonant phonemes is given below.

+ Australian English consonant phonemes			Labial	Dental	Alveolar	Post- alveolar	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		pronounced as /link/		pronounced as /link/			pronounced as /link/
Plosive		pronounced as /link/		pronounced as /link/			pronounced as /link/
		pronounced as /link/		pronounced as /link/			pronounced as /link/
Affricate					pronounced as /link/
					pronounced as /link/
Fricative		pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/			pronounced as /link/
		pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/
Approximant				pronounced as /link/		pronounced as /link/	pronounced as /link/
				pronounced as /link/

Non-rhoticity

• Australian English is non-rhotic; in other words, the pronounced as //ɹ// sound does not appear at the end of a syllable or immediately before a consonant. So the words butter pronounced as /[ˈbaɾə]/, here pronounced as /[hɪə]/ and park pronounced as /[paːk]/ will not contain the pronounced as //ɹ// sound.^[14]

Linking and intrusive pronounced as /link/

• The pronounced as /link/ sound can occur when a word that has a final (r) in the spelling comes before another word that starts with a vowel. For example, in car alarm the sound pronounced as /link/ can occur in car because here it comes before another word beginning with a vowel. The words far, far more and farm do not contain an pronounced as /link/ but far out will contain the linking pronounced as /link/ sound because the next word starts with a vowel sound.
• An intrusive pronounced as /link/ may be inserted before a vowel in words that do not have (r) in the spelling. For example, drawing will sound like draw-ring, saw it will sound like sore it, the tuner is and the tuna is will both be pronounced as /[ðə ˈtʃʉːnə.ɹɪz]/. This pronounced as /link/ occurs between pronounced as //ə//, pronounced as //oː// and pronounced as //aː// and the following vowel regardless of the historical presence or absence of pronounced as /link/. Between pronounced as //eː//, pronounced as //ɜː// and pronounced as //ɪə// (and pronounced as //ʉːə// whenever it stems from the earlier pronounced as //ʊə//) and the following vowel, the pronounced as /link/-ful pronunciation is the historical one.

Flapping

• Intervocalic pronounced as //t// (and for some speakers pronounced as //d//) undergo voicing and flapping to the alveolar tap pronounced as /[ɾ]/ after the stressed syllable and before unstressed vowels (as in butter, party) and syllabic pronounced as //l// or pronounced as //n// (bottle pronounced as /[ˈbɔɾl̩]/, button pronounced as /[ˈbaɾn̩]/), as well as at the end of a word or morpheme before any vowel (what else pronounced as /[wɔɾ‿ˈels]/, whatever pronounced as /[wɔɾˈevə]/). For those speakers where pronounced as //d// also undergoes the change, there will be homophony, for example, metal and medal or petal and pedal will sound the same (pronounced as /[ˈmeɾl̩]/ and pronounced as /[ˈpeɾl̩]/, respectively). In formal speech pronounced as //t// is retained. pronounced as /[t]/ in the cluster pronounced as /[nt]/ can elide. As a result, in quick speech, words like winner and winter can become homophonous (as pronounced as /[ˈwɪnə]/). This is a quality that Australian English shares most notably with North American English.

T-glottalisation

• Some speakers use a glottal stop pronounced as /[ʔ]/ as an allophone of pronounced as //t// in final position, for example trait, habit; or in medial position, such as a pronounced as //t// followed by a syllabic pronounced as //n// is often realized as a glottal stop, for example button or fatten. Alveolar pronunciations nevertheless predominate.

Pronunciation of pronounced as //l//

• The alveolar lateral approximant pronounced as //l// is velarised pronounced as /link/ in pre-pausal and preconsonantal positions and often also in morpheme-final positions before a vowel. There have been some suggestions that onset pronounced as //l// is also velarised, although that needs to be further researched. Some speakers vocalise preconsonantal, syllable-final and syllabic instances of pronounced as //l// to a close back vowel similar to pronounced as //ʊ//, so that milk can be pronounced pronounced as /[mɪʊ̯k]/ and noodle pronounced as /[ˈnʉːdʊ]/. This is more common in South Australia than elsewhere.

Yod-dropping and coalescence

• Standard Australian English usually coalesces pronounced as //tj// and pronounced as //dj// into pronounced as //tʃ// and pronounced as //dʒ// respectively. Because of this palatalisation, dune is pronounced as pronounced as //dʒʉːn//, exactly like June, and the first syllable of Tuesday pronounced as //ˈtʃʉːzdæɪ// is pronounced like choose pronounced as //tʃʉːz//. That said, there is stylistic and social variation in this feature. pronounced as //t// and pronounced as //d// in the clusters pronounced as //tɹ// and pronounced as //dɹ// are similarly affricated.
• Word initial pronounced as //sj// and pronounced as //zj// have merged with pronounced as //s// and pronounced as //z// respectively. Other cases of pronounced as //sj// and pronounced as //zj// are often pronounced respectively pronounced as /[ʃ]/ and pronounced as /[ʒ]/, as in assume pronounced as //əˈʃʉːm// and resume pronounced as //rəˈʒʉːm// (ashume and rezhume).^[15]
• Similarly, pronounced as //lj// has merged with pronounced as //l// word initially. Remaining cases of pronounced as //lj// are often pronounced simply as pronounced as /[j]/ in colloquial speech.
• pronounced as //nj// and other common sequences of consonant plus pronounced as //j//, are retained.
• For some speakers, pronounced as //ʃ// (or "sh") may be uttered instead of /s/ before the stressed /tj/ sound in words like student, history, eschew, street and Australia^[16] – As a result, in quick speech, eschew will sound like esh-chew.^[17] According to author Wayne P. Lawrence, "this phonemic change seems to be neither dialectal nor regional", as it can also be found among some American, Canadian, British and New Zealand English speakers as well.^[18]

Other features

• Between voiced sounds, the glottal fricative pronounced as //h// may be realised as voiced pronounced as /link/, so that e.g. behind may be pronounced as either pronounced as /[bəˈhɑɪnd]/ or pronounced as /[bəˈɦɑɪnd]/.
• The sequence pronounced as //hj// is realised as a voiceless palatal fricative pronounced as /link/, so that e.g. huge is pronounced pronounced as /[çʉːdʒ]/.
• The word foyer is usually pronounced pronounced as //ˈfoɪə//, as in NZ and American English, rather than pronounced as //ˈfoɪeɪ// as in British English.
• The word data is commonly pronounced pronounced as //ˈdaːtə//, with pronounced as //ˈdæɪtə// being the second most common, and pronounced as //ˈdætə// being very rare.
• The trans- prefix is pronounced pronounced as //tɹæns//, even in South Australia, where the trap–bath split is significantly more advanced than in other states.
• In English, upward inflexion (a rise in the pitch of the voice at the end of an utterance) typically signals a question. Some Australian English speakers commonly use a form of upward inflexion in their speech that is not associated with asking questions. Some speakers use upward inflexion as a way of including their conversational partner in the dialogue.^[19] This is also common in Californian English.

Relationship to other varieties

Australian English pronunciation is most similar to that of New Zealand English; many people from other parts of the world often cannot distinguish them but there are differences. New Zealand English has centralised pronounced as //ɪ// and the other short front vowels are higher. New Zealand English more strongly maintains the diphthongal quality of the NEAR and SQUARE vowels and they can be merged as something around pronounced as /[iə]/. New Zealand English does not have the bad-lad split, but like Victoria has merged pronounced as //e// with pronounced as //æ// in pre-lateral environments.

Both New Zealand English and Australian English are also similar to South African English, so they have even been grouped together under the common label "southern hemisphere Englishes".^[20] Like the other two varieties in that group, Australian English pronunciation bears some similarities to dialects from the South-East of Britain;^{[21] [22] [23]} Thus, it is non-rhotic and has the trap-bath split although, as indicated above, this split was not completed in Australia as it was in England, so many words that have the vowel in Southeastern England retain the vowel in Australia.

Historically, the Australian English speaking manuals endorsed the lengthening of pronounced as //ɔ// before unvoiced fricatives however this has since been reversed. Australian English lacks some innovations in Cockney since the settling of Australia, such as the use of a glottal stop in many places where a pronounced as //t// would be found, th-fronting, and h-dropping. Flapping, which Australian English shares with New Zealand English and North American English, is also found in Cockney, where it occurs as a common alternative to the glottal stop in the intervocalic position. The word butter pronounced as /[ˈbaɾɐ]/ as pronounced by an Australian or New Zealander can be homophonous with the Cockney pronunciation (which could also be pronounced as /[ˈbaʔɐ]/ instead).

AusTalk

AusTalk is a database of Australian speech from all regions of the country.^{[24] [25]} Initially, 1000 adult voices were planned to be recorded in the period between June 2011 and June 2016. By the end of it, voices of 861 speakers with ages ranging from 18 to 83 were recorded into the database, each lasting approximately an hour. The database is expected to be expanded in future, to include children's voices and more variations. As well as providing a resource for cultural studies, the database is expected to help improve speech-based technology, such as speech recognition systems and hearing aids.^[26]

The AusTalk database was collected as part of the Big Australian Speech Corpus (Big ASC) project, a collaboration between Australian universities and the speech technology experts.^{[27] [28]}

See also

• New Zealand English phonology
• White South African English phonology
• Regional accents of English

Bibliography

• • • • • • • • • Palethorpe, S. and Cox, F. M. (2003) Vowel Modification in Pre-lateral Environments. Poster presented at the International Seminar on Speech Production, December 2003, Sydney.

Further reading

• • Web site: Jilka. Matthias. Australian English and New Zealand English. Stuttgart. Institut für Linguistik/Anglistik, University of Stuttgart. https://web.archive.org/web/20140421051103/http://ifla.uni-stuttgart.de/institut/mitarbeiter/jilka/teaching/dialectology/d12_AustraliaNZ.pdf. 21 April 2014.

External links

• Macquarie University - Australian voices
• ^[29]

Notes and References

1. Web site: Grama . James . Travis . Catherine E . González . Simón . Initiation, progression, and conditioning of the short-front vowel shift in Australia . Academia . 13 September 2023.
2. Web site: Robert Mannell . Australian English – Impressionistic Phonetic Studies . Clas.mq.edu.au . 2009-08-14 . 2011-07-26. https://web.archive.org/web/20110706114743/http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/phonetics/ausenglish/impressionistic.html. 6 July 2011 . live.
3. Web site: Distinctive Features . Clas.mq.edu.au . 2011-07-26.
4. Blake, B. J. (1985), "'Short a' in Melbourne English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association 15: 6–20
5. Durie, M.; Hajek, J (1994), "A revised standard phonemic orthography for Australian English vowels", Australian Journal of Linguistics 14: 93–107
6. Web site: Robert Mannell and Felicity Cox . Phonemic (Broad) Transcription of Australian English (MD) . Clas.mq.edu.au . 2009-08-01 . 2011-07-26.
7. Web site: Robert Mannell and Felicity Cox . Phonemic (Broad) Transcription of Australian English (HCE) . Clas.mq.edu.au . 2009-08-01 . 2011-07-26. https://web.archive.org/web/20110706114633/http://clas.mq.edu.au/speech/phonetics/transcription/broad_transcription/broad_transcription.html. 6 July 2011 . live.
8. Web site: further study | Australian Voices . Clas.mq.edu.au . 2010-07-29 . 2011-07-26.
9. Phonologisation of vowel duration and nasalised /æ/ in Australian English . 2022-11-27 . Cox . Felicity . Palethorpe . Sallyanne . 2014 . Proceedings of the 15th Australasian International Conference on Speech Science and Technology . 33–36.
10. Web site: The American Accents. 24 January 2011.
11. Cox, Felicity (2006), "The acoustic characteristics of /hVd/ vowels in the speech of some Australian teenagers", Australian Journal of Linguistics 26: 147–179
12. Web site: Australian voices.
13. Web site: Catherine Sangester . Key to pronunciation: Australian English (OED) . public.oed.com . 2020-10-01 . 2021-10-25.
14. Web site: studying speech | Australian Voices . Clas.mq.edu.au . 2010-07-29 . 2011-07-26.
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