Australian Capital Territory Explained

Australian Capital Territory
Settlement Type:Territory
Flag Size:130px
Flag Link:Flag of the Australian Capital Territory
Seal Size:100px
Seal Type:Coat of arms
Seal Link:Coat of arms of the Australian Capital Territory
Motto:For the King, the Law, and the People
Subdivision Type:Country
Subdivision Name:Australia
Established Title:Transferred to Commonwealth
Established Date:1 January 1911
Established Title2:Responsible government
Established Date2:1988
Largest City:Canberra
Leader Title1:Chief Minister
Leader Name1:Andrew Barr (ALP)
Legislature:Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly
National Representation:Parliament of Australia
National Representation Type1:Senate
National Representation1:2 senators (of 76)
National Representation Type2:House of Representatives
National Representation2:3 seats (of 151)
Area Km2:2358
Area Land Km2:2358
Area Water Km2:0
Area Rank:8th
Area Rank Link:States and territories of Australia#Statistics
Elevation Max M:1912
Elevation Max Point:Bimberi Peak
Elevation Min M:429
Elevation Min Point:Murrumbidgee River
Population Estimate:455,869[1]
Population Estimate Rank:7th
Population Rank Link:States and territories of Australia#Statistics
Population Estimate Year:March 2022
Population Density Km2:190
Population Density Rank:1st
Population Density Rank Link:States and territories of Australia#Statistics
Gdp Nominal:AU$45.318 billion[2]
Gdp Nominal Type:GSP
Gdp Nominal Year:2022
Gdp Nominal Rank:6th
Gdp Nominal Rank Link:List of Australian states and territories by gross state product
Gdp Nominal Per Capita:AU$102,334
Gdp Nominal Per Capita Rank:3rd
Gdp Nominal Per Capita Rank Link:List of Australian states and territories by gross state product
Hdi:0.980
Hdi Year:2021
Hdi Change:increase
Hdi Ref:[3]
Hdi Rank:1st
Hdi Rank Link:List of Australian states and territories by Human Development Index
Timezone:AEST
Utc Offset:+10:00
Timezone Dst:AEDT
Utc Offset Dst:+11:00
Postal Code Type:Postal abbreviation
Postal Code:ACT
Iso Code:AU–ACT
Embedded:Yes
Mammal:Southern brush-tailed rock-wallaby[4]
Bird:Gang-gang cockatoo[5]
Flower:Royal bluebell[6]
Colour:Blue and gold[7]

The Australian Capital Territory (ACT), known as the Federal Capital Territory (FCT) until 1938, is a federal territory of Australia. Canberra, the capital city of Australia, is situated within the territory, and serves as the territory's primate city. It is located in southeastern Australian mainland as an enclave completely within the state of New South Wales. Founded after Federation as the seat of government for the new nation, the territory hosts the headquarters of all important institutions of the Australian Government.

On 1 January 1901, federation of the colonies of Australia was achieved. Section 125 of the new Australian Constitution provided that land, situated in New South Wales and at least from Sydney, would be ceded to the new federal government. Following discussion and exploration of various areas within New South Wales, the Seat of Government Act 1908 was passed in 1908 which specified a capital in the Yass-Canberra region. The territory was transferred to the federal government by New South Wales in 1911, two years prior to the capital city being founded and formally named as Canberra in 1913.

While the overwhelming majority of the population resides in the city of Canberra in the ACT's north-east, the territory also includes some towns such as Williamsdale, Oaks Estate, Uriarra, Tharwa and Hall. The ACT also includes the Namadgi National Park, which comprises the majority of land area of the territory. Despite a common misconception, the Jervis Bay Territory is not part of the ACT, although the laws of the Australian Capital Territory apply as if Jervis Bay did form part of the ACT.[8] The territory has a relatively dry, continental climate, experiencing warm to hot summers and cool to cold winters.

The Australian Capital Territory is home to many important institutions of the federal government, national monuments and museums. These include the Parliament of Australia, the High Court of Australia, the Australian Defence Force Academy and the Australian War Memorial. It also hosts the majority of foreign embassies in Australia, as well as regional headquarters of many international organisations, not-for-profit groups, lobbying groups and professional associations. Several major universities also have campuses in the ACT, including the Australian National University, the University of Canberra, the University of New South Wales, Charles Sturt University and the Australian Catholic University.

A locally elected legislative assembly has governed the territory since 1988. However, the Commonwealth maintains authority over the territory and may overturn local laws. It still maintains control over the area known as the Parliamentary Triangle through the National Capital Authority. Residents of the territory elect three members of the House of Representatives and two senators.

With 453,324 residents, the Australian Capital Territory is the second smallest mainland state or territory by population. At the, the median weekly income for people in the territory aged over 15 was $998, significantly higher than the national median of $662. The average level of degree qualification in the ACT is also higher than the national average. Within the ACT, 37.1% of the population hold a bachelor's degree level or above education compared to the national figure of 20%. The Australian Capital Territory had the second highest Human Development Index score (0.980) out of over 1,700 subnational regions in 2021, coming close to a perfect score of 1.

History

See main article: History of the Australian Capital Territory.

Indigenous inhabitants

Aboriginal Australian peoples have long inhabited the area.[9] Evidence indicates habitation dating back at least 25,000 years,[10] and it is possible that the area was inhabited for considerably longer, with evidence of an Aboriginal presence at Lake Mungo dating back around 40,000–62,000 years.[11] The principal group occupying the region were the Ngunnawal people, with the Ngarigo and Walgalu living immediately to the south, the Wandadian to the east, the Gandangara to the north and the Wiradjuri to the north-west.[12]

European colonisation

Following European settlement, the growth of the new colony of New South Wales led to an increasing demand for arable land. Governor Lachlan Macquarie supported expeditions to open up new lands to the south of Sydney.[13] The 1820s saw further exploration in the Canberra area associated with the construction of a road from Sydney to the Goulburn plains. While working on the project, Charles Throsby learned of a nearby lake and river from the local Indigenous peoples and he accordingly sent Wild to lead a small party to investigate the site. The search was unsuccessful, but they did discover the Yass River, and it is surmised that they would have set foot on part of the future territory.[14]

A second expedition was mounted shortly thereafter, and they became the first Europeans to camp at the Molonglo (Ngambri) and Queanbeyan (Jullergung) Rivers. However, they failed to find the Murrumbidgee River. The issue of the Murrumbidgee was solved in 1821 when Throsby mounted a third expedition and successfully reached the watercourse, on the way providing the first detailed account of the land where the Australian Capital Territory now resides. The last expedition in the region before settlement was undertaken by Allan Cunningham in 1824. He reported that the region was suitable for grazing and the settlement of the Limestone Plains followed immediately thereafter.[15]

Early settlement

The first land grant in the region was made to Joshua John Moore in 1823, and European settlement in the area began in 1824 with the construction of a homestead by his stockmen on what is now the Acton Peninsula. Moore formally purchased the site in 1826 and named the property Canberry or Canberra.

A significant influx of population and economic activity occurred around the 1850s goldrushes.[16] The goldrushes prompted the establishment of communication between Sydney and the region by way of the Cobb & Co coaches, which transported mail and passengers.[17] The first post offices opened in Ginninderra in 1859 and at Lanyon in 1860.

During colonial times, the European communities of Ginninderra, Molonglo and Tuggeranong settled and farmed the surrounding land. The region was also called the Queanbeyan-Yass district, after the two largest towns in the area. The villages of Ginninderra and Tharwa developed to service the local agrarian communities.

During the first 20 years of settlement, there was only limited contact between the settlers and Aboriginal people. Over the succeeding years, the Ngunnawal and other local indigenous people effectively ceased to exist as cohesive and independent communities adhering to their traditional ways of life. Those who had not succumbed to disease and other predations either dispersed to the local settlements or were relocated to more distant Aboriginal reserves set up by the New South Wales government in the latter part of the 19th century.

Creation of the territory

In 1898, a referendum on a proposed Constitution was held in four of the colonies – New South Wales, South Australia, Tasmania, and Victoria. Although the referendum achieved a majority in all four colonies, the New South Wales referendum failed to gain the minimum number of votes needed for the bill to pass. Following this result, a meeting of the four Premiers in 1898 heard from George Reid, the Premier of New South Wales, who argued that locating the future capital in New South Wales would be sufficient to ensure the passage of the Bill. The 1899 referendum on this revised bill was successful and passed with sufficient numbers.[18] Section 125 of the Australian Constitution thus provided that, following Federation in 1901, land would be ceded freely to the new federal government.

This, however, left open the question of where to locate the capital. In 1906 and after significant deliberations, New South Wales agreed to cede sufficient land on the condition that it was in the Yass-Canberra region, this site being closer to Sydney.[19] Initially, Dalgety, New South Wales remained at the forefront, but Yass-Canberra prevailed after voting by federal representatives. The Seat of Government Act 1908 was passed in 1908, which repealed the 1904 Act and specified a capital in the Yass-Canberra region.[20] Government surveyor Charles Scrivener was deployed to the region in the same year to map out a specific site and, after an extensive search, settled upon the present location,[21] basing the borders primarily on the need to secure a stable water supply for the planned capital.[22]

Site! rowspan=2
Ballot
width=35px1st !width=35px2nd !width=35px3rd !width=35px4th !width=35px5th !width=35px6th !width=35px7th !width=35px8th !width=35px9th
452 km 27 26 28 28 27 27 24 27 33
248 km 19 22 23 21 22 22 24 31 39
514 km 4 3 5 7 9 9 13 14
269 km 6 8 7 8 8 8 8
485 km 7 5 5 5 5 5
411 km 3 4 3 2 2
248 km 1 1 1 1
485 km 1 1
554 km 2
254 km 2
Total 72 70 72 72 73 71 69 72 72
Abstention 2 4 2 2 1 3 4 2 2
Absent 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

The Australian Capital Territory was transferred to the Commonwealth by New South Wales on 1 January 1911, two years before the naming of Canberra as the national capital on 20 March 1913.[23]

The Commonwealth gained control of all land within the borders of the new territory but ownership only of NSW Crown land, with significant parcels of extant freehold remaining in the hands of their pre-existing owners. Much of this was acquired during World War One, though a few titles were not transferred until the late 20th Century.

Land within the territory is granted under a leasehold system, with 99-year residential leases sold to buyers as new suburbs are planned, surveyed, and developed. The current policy is for these leases to be extended for another 99-year period on expiry, subject to payment of an administrative fee.[24] In an arrangement inspired by Georgism, the ideas of 19th-century American economist Henry George, leaseholders had to pay 5% of the unimproved value of the underlying land in rent until the Gorton government abolished it in 1970.[25]

Development throughout 20th century

In 1911, an international competition to design the future capital was held; it was won by the Chicago architect Walter Burley Griffin in 1912. The official naming of Canberra occurred on 12 March 1913 and construction began immediately.

After Griffin's departure following difficulty in implementing his project,[26] the Federal Capital Advisory Committee was established in 1920 to advise the government of the construction efforts. The committee had limited success meeting its goals. However, the chairman, John Sulman, was instrumental in applying the ideas of the garden city movement to Griffin's plan. The committee was replaced in 1925 by the Federal Capital Commission.

In 1930, the ACT Advisory Council was established to advise the minister for territories on the community's concerns. In 1934, the Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory was established.[27]

From 1938 to 1957, the National Capital Planning and Development Committee continued to plan the further expansion of Canberra. However, it did not have executive power, and decisions were made on the development of Canberra without consulting the committee. During this time, Prime Minister Robert Menzies regarded the state of the national capital as an embarrassment.[28]

After World War II, there was a shortage of housing and office space in Canberra.[29] A Senate Select Committee hearing was held in 1954 to address its development requirements. This Committee recommended the creation of a single planning body with executive power. Consequently, the National Capital Planning and Development Committee was replaced by the National Capital Development Commission in 1957.[30] The National Capital Development Commission ended four decades of disputes over the shape and design of Lake Burley Griffin and construction was completed in 1964 after four years of work. The completion of the centrepiece of Griffin's design finally laid the platform for the development of Griffin's Parliamentary Triangle.

Self-government

In 1978, an advisory referendum was held to determine the views of ACT citizens about whether there should be self-government. Just under 64 percent of voters rejected devolved government options, in favour of the status quo.[31] Nevertheless, in 1988, the new minister for the Australian Capital Territory Gary Punch received a report recommending the abolition of the National Capital Development Commission and the formation of a locally elected government. Punch recommended that the Hawke government accept the report's recommendations and subsequently Clyde Holding introduced legislation to grant self-government to the territory in October 1988.[32]

The enactment on 6 December 1988 of the Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988 established the framework for self-government.[33] The first election for the 17-member Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly was held on 4 March 1989.[34]

The initial years of self-government were difficult and unstable.[35] A majority of ACT residents had opposed self-government and had it imposed upon them by the federal parliament. At the first election, 4 of the 17 seats were won by anti-self-government single-issue parties due to a protest vote by disgruntled Canberrans and a total of 8 were won by minor parties and independents.[35]

In 1992, Labor won eight seats and the minor parties and independents won only three. Stability increased, and in 1995, Kate Carnell became the first elected Liberal chief minister. In 1998, Carnell became the first chief minister to be re-elected.

Geography

The Australian Capital Territory is the smallest mainland territory (aside from the Jervis Bay Territory) and covers a total land area of, slightly smaller than Luxembourg.

It is bounded by the Bombala railway line in the east, the watershed of Naas Creek in the south, the watershed of the Cotter River in the west and the watershed of the Molonglo River in the north-east. These boundaries were set to give the ACT an adequate water supply.[36] The ACT extends about north-south between 35.124°S and 35.921°S, and west-east between 148.763°E and 149.399°E. The city area of Canberra occupies the north-eastern corner of this area.

The Australian Capital Territory includes the city of Canberra and some towns such as Williamsdale, Oaks Estate, Uriarra Village, Tharwa and Hall. The Australian Capital Territory also contains agricultural land (sheep, dairy cattle, vineyards and small amounts of crops) and a large area of national park (Namadgi National Park), much of it mountainous and forested.

Tidbinbilla is a locality to the south-west of Canberra that features the Tidbinbilla Nature Reserve and the Canberra Deep Space Communication Complex, operated by the United States' NASA as part of its Deep Space Network. The Southern Tablelands Temperate Grassland straddles the state.

The territory includes a large range of mountains, rivers and creeks, largely contained within the Namadgi National Park. These include the Naas and Murrumbidgee Rivers.

In September 2022, it was announced that the border between NSW and the ACT would change for the first time since it was created in 1911.[37] ACT chief minister Andrew Barr said NSW premier Dominic Perrottet had agreed to a proposed border change of in the Ginninderra watershed.[38]

Climate

The territory has a relatively dry, continental climate, experiencing warm to hot summers and cool to cold winters.[39] Under the Köppen-Geiger classification, the territory has an oceanic climate (Cfb).[40]

January is the hottest month with an average high of 27.7 °C. July is the coldest month when the average high drops to . The highest maximum temperature recorded in the territory was 44.0 °C on 4 January 2020. The lowest minimum temperature was −10.0 °C on 11 July 1971.

Rainfall varies significantly across the territory. Much higher rainfall occurs in the mountains to the west of Canberra compared to the east. The mountains act as a barrier during winter with the city receiving less rainfall. Average annual rainfall in the territory is 629mm and there is an average of 108 rain days annually. The wettest month is October, with an average rainfall of 65.3mm, and the driest month is June, with an average of 39.6mm.

Frost is common in the winter months. Snow is rare in Canberra's city centre, but the surrounding areas get annual snowfall through winter and often the snow-capped mountains can be seen from the city. The last significant snowfall in the city centre was in 1968.

Smoke haze became synonymous with the 2019/2020 Australian summer. On 1 January 2020 Canberra had the worst air quality of any major city in the world, with an AQI of 7700 (USAQI 949).[41]

Geology

See main article: Geology of the Australian Capital Territory. Notable geological formations in the Australian Capital Territory include the Canberra Formation, the Pittman Formation, Black Mountain Sandstone and State Circle Shale.

In the 1840s fossils of brachiopods and trilobites from the Silurian period were discovered at Woolshed Creek near Duntroon. At the time, these were the oldest fossils discovered in Australia, though this record has now been far surpassed. Other specific geological places of interest include the State Circle cutting and the Deakin anticline.

The oldest rocks in the ACT date from the Ordovician around 480 million years ago. During this period the region along with most of Eastern Australia was part of the ocean floor; formations from this period include the Black Mountain Sandstone formation and the Pittman Formation consisting largely of quartz-rich sandstone, siltstone and shale. These formations became exposed when the ocean floor was raised by a major volcanic activity in the Devonian forming much of the east coast of Australia.

Flora and fauna

See main article: Fauna of the Australian Capital Territory and Flora of the Australian Capital Territory. The environments range from alpine area on the higher mountains, to sclerophyll forest and to woodland. Much of the ACT has been cleared for grazing and is also burnt off by bushfires several times per century. The kinds of plants can be grouped into vascular plants, that include gymnosperms, flowering plants, and ferns, as well as bryophytes, lichens, fungi and freshwater algae. Four flowering plants are endemic to the ACT. Several lichens are unique to the territory. Most plants in the ACT are characteristic of the Flora of Australia and include well known plants such as Grevillea, Eucalyptus trees and kangaroo grass.

The native forest in the Australian Capital Territory was almost wholly eucalypt species and provided a resource for fuel and domestic purposes. By the early 1960s, logging had depleted the eucalypt, and concern about water quality led to the forests being closed. Interest in forestry began in 1915 with trials of a number of species including Pinus radiata on the slopes of Mount Stromlo. Since then, plantations have been expanded, with the benefit of reducing erosion in the Cotter catchment, and the forests are also popular recreation areas.[42]

The fauna of the territory includes representatives from most major Australian animal groups. This includes kangaroos, wallabies, koalas, platypus, echidna, emu, kookaburras and dragon lizards.

Government and politics

Territory government

See also: Australian Capital Territory Legislative Assembly, Electoral systems of the Australian states and territories and Government of the Australian Capital Territory.

Unlike the States of Australia which have their own constitutions, territories like the ACT are governed under a Commonwealth statute[43] for the ACT, the Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988.[44] The Self-Government Act constitutes a democratic government for the Territory consisting of a popularly elected Legislative Assembly which elects a Chief Minister from among its membership who, in turn, appoints an Executive consisting of a number of Ministers.

The executive power of the Territory rests with the ACT Government, led by the Executive. The Executive is chaired by the Chief Minister (currently the Labor Party's Andrew Barr) and consists of Ministers appointed by them. The Executive are supported by the ACT Public Service, which is arranged into directorates, and a number of public authorities.[45] The Chief Minister is the equivalent of a State Premier and sits on the National Cabinet. Unlike the States and the Northern Territory, there is no vice-regal representative who chairs the Executive. The Chief Minister performs many of the roles that a state governor normally holds in the context of a state; however, the Speaker of the Legislative Assembly gazettes the laws and summons meetings of the Assembly.

The legislative power of the Territory is vested in the unicameral Legislative Assembly. The Assembly consists of 25 members who are elected from five electorates using the Hare-Clark single transferable voting system. The Assembly is presided over by the Speaker (currently the Labor Party's Joy Burch). The Assembly has almost all of the same powers as the state parliaments, the power to "make laws for the peace, order, and good government of the Territory", with limited exceptions relating to the Territory's unique relationship with the Commonwealth.[46] The Hare-Clark voting system was adopted after a referendum in 1992 and was entrenched by another referendum in 1995.[47] The electoral system cannot be changed except by a two-thirds majority in the Assembly or a majority vote of support at a public referendum.[48]

There is no level of local government below the Territory government as in the States and the functions associated with local government are carried out principally by the Transport Canberra and City Services Directorate. There is an indigenous voice to the ACT Government, called the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Elected Body.[49]

Despite the wide powers of the Territory government, the federal government continues to have power over the Territory. This includes an unused power to dissolve the Assembly and appoint a caretaker government in extraordinary circumstances.[50] The federal and territory governments share some officers, such as the Ombudsman.[51] The federal parliament also retains the power to make any law for the Territory under section 122 of the Constitution and an exclusive power to legislate for the "seat of government".[52] Territory laws which conflict with federal law are inoperable to the extent of the inconsistency.[53] [54]

Notes and References

  1. Web site: National, state and territory population – March 2021. Australian Bureau of Statistics. 26 September 2022. 27 November 2022. 21 November 2022. https://web.archive.org/web/20221121204624/https://www.abs.gov.au/statistics/people/population/national-state-and-territory-population/mar-2022. live.
  2. Web site: 5220.0 – Australian National Accounts: State Accounts . Australian Bureau of Statistics . 20 November 2022 . 23 October 2023.
  3. Web site: Sub-national HDI – Area Database . Global Data Lab . en . 2022-01-24.
  4. Web site: ACT Flags and Emblems . Chief Minister, Treasury and Economic Development Directorate . 20 September 2019 . 6 November 2019.
  5. Web site: Australian Capital Territory . 27 May 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070305082719/http://www.parliament.curriculum.edu.au/act.php3#symbol . 5 March 2007 . dead . dmy.
  6. Web site: Floral Emblem of the ACT . 27 May 2007 . Boden, Anne . 23 May 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070601054959/http://www.anbg.gov.au/emblems/act.emblem.html . 1 June 2007 . live.
  7. Web site: Time to Talk Canberra . ACT Flags and Emblems . CMD.act.gov.au . 17 July 2016.
  8. Web site: Jervis Bay Territory Governance and Administration . Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development . en-US . 2019-04-08.
  9. Book: Fitzgerald, Alan . Canberra in two centuries: A pictorial history . Clareville Press . 1987 . 0-909278-02-4 . 4–5,12,92–93,115,128.
  10. News: Osborne . Tegan . New dating shows 25,000 years of history at Birrigai rock shelter in ACT . 20 August 2019 . ABC News . 5 May 2016.
  11. Bowler JM, Johnston H, Olley JM, Prescott JR, Roberts RG, Shawcross W, Spooner NA . New ages for human occupation and climatic change at Lake Mungo, Australia. . Nature . 421 . 6925 . 2003 . 837–40 . 12594511 . 10.1038/nature01383 . 2003Natur.421..837B . 4365526.
  12. Book: Gillespie, Lyall . Aborigines of the Canberra Region . Wizard (Lyall Gillespie) . Canberra . 1984 . 1–25 . 0-9590255-0-2.
  13. Book: Gillespie, Lyall . Canberra 1820–1913 . Australian Government Publishing Service . 1991 . 0-644-08060-4 . 3–9,110–111,149,278,303.
  14. Book: Fitzhardinge, L. F. . Old Canberra and the search for a capital . Canberra & District Historical Society . 1975 . 0-909655-02-2 . 1–3, 31–32.
  15. Watson . F. . 1931 . Special Article: Canberra Past and Present . Year Book Australia . 8 April 2019.
  16. Web site: Kiandra . . 5 February 2005 . 19 February 2010.
  17. Book: Wigmore, Lionel . Canberra: history of Australia's national capital . Dalton Publishing Company . 1971 . 0-909906-06-8 . 20,113.
  18. Web site: Contested places for Australia's capital city . https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www-etsav.upc.es/personals/iphs2004/pdf/017_p.pdf . 2022-10-09 . live . Birtles . Terry G. . 2004 . 11th Annual Planning History Conference . 8 April 2019.
  19. Web site: A4 Report Map of Australia . 16 November 2009 . Geoscience Australia . 19 February 2010.
  20. Web site: Seat of Government Act 1908 (Cth) . . https://web.archive.org/web/20091017025122/http://foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?dID=110 . 17 October 2009 . dead . 31 January 2010 . dmy-all.
  21. Birtles . Terry G. . Charles Robert Scrivener (1855–1923) . scrivener-charles-robert-8374 . 1988 . 11 . 2021-03-15.
  22. News: How were the ACT's boundaries determined? . Allen . Craig . ABC News . 11 April 2016 . 6 October 2022.
  23. Book: Fitzgerald, Alan John. . Canberra in two centuries : a pictorial history . 1987 . Clareville Press in association with the Limestone Plains Partnership . 0-909278-02-4 . Torrens, A.C.T. . 27587510.
  24. Web site: Leasehold . Environment, Planning and Sustainable Development Directorate – Planning . 26 July 2023 . 26 July 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230726001305/https://www.planning.act.gov.au/leasing-and-titles/crown-leases/leasehold . dead .
  25. News: Can people own land in the ACT?. ABC News. 4 July 2016. 9 October 2021. Gordon. Taylor.
  26. Web site: History of the NCA . 11 June 2009 . National Capital Authority . 26 February 2010.
  27. Web site: ACT Courts . ACT Supreme Court: About the Courts . 16 December 2019 . 2020-06-18 . courts.act.gov.au . en.
  28. Book: Sparke, Eric . Canberra 1954–1980 . Australian Government Publishing Service . 1988 . 0-644-08060-4 . 30,170–180.
  29. Book: Gibbney, Jim . Canberra 1913–1953 . Australian Government Publishing Service . 1988 . 0-644-08060-4 . 231–237.
  30. Book: Andrews, W.C. . Canberra's Engineering Heritage . Institution of Engineers Australia . 1990 . 0-85825-496-4 . 90.
  31. Web site: ACT Legislative Assembly . Establishing self-government in the ACT . 30 March 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200418023423/https://www.parliament.act.gov.au/Explore-your-Assembly/resources/fact-sheets/self-government . 18 April 2020 . dead.
  32. Book: Overall, John . Canberra: yesterday, today & tomorrow: a personal memoir . Federal Capital Press of Australia . 1995 . 0-9593910-6-1 . 128–129.
  33. Web site: Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988 (Cth) . . 21 January 2010 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20050716075342/http://www.foundingdocs.gov.au/item.asp?sdID=117 . 16 July 2005.
  34. Web site: Past ACT Legislative Assembly Elections . ACT Electoral Commission . 29 January 2010.
  35. Web site: Turbulent 20yrs of self-government . . 31 January 2010 . 11 May 2009.
  36. Web site: How were the ACT's boundaries determined? . 10 April 2016 . www.abc.net.au.
  37. News: 2022-09-16 . 'It's happening': NSW-ACT border to change for first time since its creation as territory expands . en-AU . ABC News . 2022-09-16.
  38. Web site: 2022-09-16 . NSW and ACT in talks over biggest border shake-up in living memory . 2022-09-16 . the Guardian . en.
  39. Web site: Climate of Canberra Area . 12 July 2009 . Bureau of Meteorology . https://web.archive.org/web/20090712100903/http://www.bom.gov.au/weather/nsw/canberra/climate.shtml . 2009-07-12 . 2019-03-30.
  40. Web site: Climate: Australian Capital Territory . en.climate-data.org . 2019-03-30.
  41. Web site: Canberra chokes on world's worst air quality as city all but shut down . . 3 January 2020 . 5 January 2020.
  42. Book: McLeod, Ron . Inquiry into the Operational Response to the January 2003 Bushfires in the ACT . 2003 . 0-642-60216-6 . Canberra, ACT . ACT Government . https://web.archive.org/web/20130514031921/http://www.cmd.act.gov.au/__data/assets/pdf_file/0008/113939/McLeodInquiry.pdf . 14 May 2013 . live.
  43. [Constitution of Australia]
  44. Web site: Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988 (Cth) . . 14 June 2019.
  45. Web site: Home . 2023-01-26 . Functions and Services Directory . ACT Government.
  46. Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988 (Cth) ss 22 and 23.
  47. Web site: 2016 . Fact sheet – Referendums . 2023-01-26 . . en.
  48. https://www.legislation.act.gov.au/View/a/1995-1/current/html/1995-1.html Proportional Representation (Hare-Clark) Entrenchment Act 1994 (ACT)
  49. Web site: About Us . 2023-01-27 . Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Elected Body . en-AU.
  50. Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988 (Cth) s 16
  51. Web site: 2020-07-10 . Who we are . 2023-01-27 . ACT Ombudsman . en . 27 January 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230127023608/https://www.ombudsman.act.gov.au/about-us/who-we-are . dead .
  52. Constitution of Australia s 52(i).
  53. Australian Capital Territory (Self-Government) Act 1988 (Cth) s 28
  54. Australian Capital Territory (Planning and Land Management) Act 1988 (Cth) s 27
  55. https://www.legislation.gov.au/Details/C2011A00166 Territories Self-Government Legislation Amendment (Disallowance and Amendment of Laws) Act 2011 (Cth)
  56. Web site: Disallowance powers removed from ACT self-government legislation . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120523073454/http://www.parliament.act.gov.au/index.asp?ID=7487 . 23 May 2012 . 5 November 2012 . News, Events and Conferences . ACT Legislative Assembly.
  57. Web site: 2019-12-13 . Court of Appeal . 2023-01-26 . ACT Supreme Court . en.
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  140. Crosby v Kelly 203 FCR 451; [2012 FCAFC 96] (Full Court of the Federal Court of Australia).[59]

    Policing services are provided by the ACT Policing unit of the Australian Federal Police under agreements between the territory government, the federal government, and the police force.[60] [61] [62] Canberra had the lowest rate of crime of any capital city in Australia .[63]

    Federal representation

    In Australia's Federal Parliament, the ACT is represented by five federal members: three members of the House of Representatives represent the Division of Bean, the Division of Canberra and the Division of Fenner, and it is one of only two territories to be represented in the Senate, with two Senators (the other being the Northern Territory). The Member for Bean and the ACT Senators also represent the constituents of Norfolk Island. The Member for Fenner and the ACT Senators also represent the constituents of the Jervis Bay Territory.

    Jervis Bay Territory

    See main article: Jervis Bay Territory. In 1915, the Jervis Bay Territory Acceptance Act 1915 created the Jervis Bay Territory as an annex to the Federal Capital Territory. While the Act's use of the language of "annexed" is sometimes interpreted as implying that the Jervis Bay Territory was to form part of the Federal Capital Territory, the accepted legal position is that it has been a legally distinct territory from its creation despite being subject to ACT law and, prior to ACT self-government in 1988, being administratively treated as part of the ACT.[64]

    In 1988, when the ACT gained self-government, Jervis Bay was formally pronounced as a separate territory administered by the Commonwealth known as the Jervis Bay Territory. However, the laws of the ACT continue to apply to the Jervis Bay Territory. Magistrates from the ACT regularly travel to the Jervis Bay Territory to conduct court.[65]

    Another occasional misconception is that the ACT retains a small area of territory on the coast on the Beecroft Peninsula, consisting of a strip of coastline around the northern headland of Jervis Bay. While the land is owned by the Commonwealth Government, that area itself is still considered to be under the jurisdiction of New South Wales government, not a separate territory nor a part of the ACT.[66]

    Demographics

    See also: Demographics of Canberra. The Australian Bureau of Statistics estimates that the population of the territory was 453,324 on 31 December 2021, with an annual growth in 2021 of 0.4%. A 2019 projection estimated the population would reach to approximately 700,000 by 2058.[67] [68]

    The overwhelming majority of the population reside in the city of Canberra.

    At the, the median weekly income for people in the territory aged over 15 was $998 while the national average was $662.[69]

    The average level of degree qualification in the ACT is higher than the national average. Within the ACT, 37.1% of the population hold a bachelor's degree level or above education compared to the national figure of 20%.

    City and towns

    See main article: Canberra and Suburbs of Canberra. The Australian Capital Territory consists of the city of Canberra and some towns including Williamsdale, Oaks Estate, Uriarra, Tharwa and Hall.

    The urban areas of the Australian Capital Territory are organised into a hierarchy of districts, town centres, group centres, local suburbs as well as other industrial areas and villages. There are seven districts (with an eighth currently under construction), each of which is divided into smaller suburbs, and most of which have a town centre which is the focus of commercial and social activities. The districts were settled in the following chronological order:

    mostly settled in the 1920s and '30s, with expansion up to the 1960s, now 14 suburbs;

    settled from the 1920s to '60s, 13 suburbs;

    first settled in 1963, 12 suburbs;

    first settled in 1967, 25 suburbs;

    settled in 1969, 8 suburbs;

    settled in 1974, 19 suburbs;

    settled in the early 1990s, 18 suburbs although only 15 are developed or under development;

    first suburbs currently under construction.

    The North and South Canberra districts are substantially based on Walter Burley Griffin's designs. In 1967, the then National Capital Development Commission adopted the "Y Plan" which laid out future urban development in the Australian Capital Territory a series of central shopping and commercial area known as the 'town centres' linked by freeways, the layout of which roughly resembled the shape of the letter Y, with Tuggeranong at the base of the Y and Belconnen and Gungahlin located at the ends of the arms of the Y.

    Ancestry and immigration

    Country of Birth (2016)[70] ! Birthplace !! Population
    Australia 269,682
    England 12,739
    11,334
    India 10,405
    New Zealand 4,722
    3,789
    3,340
    United States 2,775
    2,774
    2,431
    2,283

    At the, the most commonly nominated ancestries were:

    The showed that 32.5% of the ACT's inhabitants were born overseas. Of inhabitants born outside of Australia, the most prevalent countries of birth were India, England, China, Nepal and New Zealand.

    2.0% of the population, or 8,949 people, identified as Indigenous Australians (Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders) in 2021.

    Language

    At the, 71.3% of people spoke only English at home. The other languages most commonly spoken at home were Mandarin (3.2%), Nepali (1.3%), Vietnamese (1.1%), Punjabi (1.1%), Hindi (1.0%).[71]

    Religion

    The most common responses in the for religion in the territory were No Religion (43.5%), Catholic (19.3%), Anglican (8.2%), Not stated (5.2%) and Hinduism (4.5%).

    Culture

    Education

    See main article: Education in the Australian Capital Territory. Almost all educational institutions in the Australian Capital Territory are located within Canberra. The ACT public education system schooling is normally split up into Pre-School, Primary School (K-6), High School (7–10) and College (11–12) followed by studies at University or Institute of Technology. Many private high schools include years 11 and 12 and are referred to as colleges. Children are required to attend school until they turn 17 under the ACT Government's "Learn or Earn" policy.[72]

    In February 2004 there were 140 public and non-governmental schools in ACT; 96 were operated by the Government and 44 are non-Government.[73] In 2005, there were 60,275 students in the ACT school system. 59.3% of the students were enrolled in government schools with the remaining 40.7% in non-government schools. There were 30,995 students in primary school, 19,211 in high school, 9,429 in college and a further 340 in special schools.[74]

    As of May 2004, 30% of people in the ACT aged 15–64 had a level of educational attainment equal to at least a bachelor's degree, significantly higher than the national average of 19%.[75] The two main tertiary institutions are the Australian National University (ANU) in Acton and the University of Canberra (UC) in Bruce. There are also two religious university campuses in Canberra: Signadou is a campus of the Australian Catholic University and St Mark's Theological College is a campus of Charles Sturt University. Tertiary level vocational education is also available through the multi-campus Canberra Institute of Technology (CIT).

    The Australian Defence Force Academy (ADFA) and the Royal Military College, Duntroon (RMC) are in the suburb of Campbell in Canberra's inner northeast. ADFA teaches military undergraduates and postgraduates and is officially a campus of the University of New South Wales while Duntroon provides Australian Army Officer training.

    The Academy of Interactive Entertainment (AIE) offers courses in computer game development and 3D animation.

    Sport

    See main article: Sport in the Australian Capital Territory. The Australian Capital Territory is home to a number of major professional sports league franchise teams including the ACT Brumbies (Rugby Union), Canberra United (Soccer), Canberra Raiders (Rugby League) and the Canberra Capitals (Basketball).

    The Prime Minister's XI (Cricket), started by Robert Menzies in the 1950s and revived by Bob Hawke in 1984, has been played every year at Manuka Oval against an overseas touring team.

    The Greater Western Sydney Giants (Football) play three regular season matches a year and one pre-season match in Canberra at Manuka Oval.

    Arts and entertainment

    See also: Music of Canberra. The territory is home to many national monuments and institutions such as the Australian War Memorial, the National Gallery of Australia, the National Portrait Gallery, the National Library,[76] the National Archives,[77] the Australian Academy of Science,[78] the National Film and Sound Archive and the National Museum. Many Commonwealth government buildings in the Australian Capital Territory are open to the public, including Parliament House, the High Court and the Royal Australian Mint.[79] [80] [81]

    Lake Burley Griffin is the site of the Captain James Cook Memorial and the National Carillon. Other sites of interest include the Telstra Tower, the Australian National Botanic Gardens, the National Zoo and Aquarium, the National Dinosaur Museum and Questacon – the National Science and Technology Centre.[82] The Canberra Museum and Gallery in the city is a repository of local history and art, housing a permanent collection and visiting exhibitions.[83] Several historic homes are open to the public: Lanyon and Tuggeranong Homesteads in the Tuggeranong Valley,[84] [85] Mugga-Mugga in Symonston,[86] and Blundells' Cottage in Parkes all display the lifestyle of the early European settlers.[87] Calthorpes' House in Red Hill is a well-preserved example of a 1920s house from Canberra's very early days.[88]

    The Australian Capital Territory has many venues for live music and theatre: the Canberra Theatre and Playhouse which hosts many major concerts and productions;[89] and Llewellyn Hall (within the ANU School of Music), a world-class concert hall are two of the most notable.[90] The Albert Hall was Canberra's first performing arts venue, opened in 1928. It was the original performance venue for theatre groups such as the Canberra Repertory Society.[91]

    There are numerous bars and nightclubs which also offer live entertainment, particularly concentrated in the areas of Dickson, Kingston and the city. Most town centres have facilities for a community theatre and a cinema, and they all have a library. Popular cultural events include the National Folk Festival, the Royal Canberra Show, the Summernats car festival, Enlighten festival and the National Multicultural Festival in February.

    Media

    The Australian Capital Territory have a daily newspaper, The Canberra Times, which was established in 1926.[92] There are also several free weekly publications, including news magazines City News and Canberra Weekly.

    Major daily newspapers such as the Daily Telegraph and Sydney Morning Herald from Sydney, The Age and Herald Sun from Melbourne as well as national publications The Australian and the Australian Financial Review are also available for purchase via retail outlets or via home delivery in the Australian Capital Territory.

    There are a number of AM and FM stations broadcasting throughout the ACT (AM/FM Listing). The main commercial operators are the Capital Radio Network (2CA and 2CC), and Southern Cross Austereo/ARN Media (Hit 104.7 and Mix 106.3). There are also several community operated stations as well as the local and national stations of the Australian Broadcasting Corporation.

    A DAB+ digital radio trial is also in operation, it simulcasts some of the AM/FM stations, and also provides several digital only stations (DAB+ Trial Listing).

    Five free-to-air television stations service the territory:

    Each station broadcasts a primary channel and several multichannels.

    Pay television services are available from Foxtel (via satellite) and telecommunications company TransACT (via cable).[93]

    Infrastructure

    Health

    The Australian Capital Territory has two large public hospitals both located in Canberra: the approximately 600-bed Canberra Hospital in Garran and the 174-bed Calvary Public Hospital in Bruce. Both are teaching institutions.[94] [95] [96] [97] The largest private hospital is the Calvary John James Hospital in Deakin.[98] [99] Calvary Private Hospital in Bruce and Healthscope's National Capital Private Hospital in Garran are also major healthcare providers.

    The Australian Capital Territory has 10 aged care facilities. ACT's hospitals receive emergency cases from throughout southern New South Wales,[100] and ACT Ambulance Service is one of four operational agencies of the ACT Emergency Services Authority.[101] NETS provides a dedicated ambulance service for inter-hospital transport of sick newborns within the ACT and into surrounding New South Wales.[102]

    Transport

    The automobile is by far the dominant form of transport in the Australian Capital Territory.[103] The city is laid out so that arterial roads connecting inhabited clusters run through undeveloped areas of open land or forest, which results in a low population density; this also means that idle land is available for the development of future transport corridors if necessary without the need to build tunnels or acquire developed residential land. In contrast, other capital cities in Australia have substantially less green space.

    Australian Capital Territory's localities are generally connected by parkways—limited access dual carriageway roads[104] with speed limits generally set at a maximum of .[105] [106] An example is the Tuggeranong Parkway which links Canberra's CBD and Tuggeranong, and bypasses Weston Creek. In most districts, discrete residential suburbs are bounded by main arterial roads with only a few residential linking in, to deter non-local traffic from cutting through areas of housing.

    ACTION, the government-operated bus service, provides public transport throughout the Australian Capital Territory.[107] CDC Canberra provides bus services between the Australian Capital Territory and nearby areas of New South Wales (Murrumbateman and Yass)[108] and as Qcity Transit (Queanbeyan).[109] A light rail line that opened in April 2019 links the CBD with the northern district of Gungahlin. At the 2016 census, 7.1% of the journeys to work involved public transport while 4.5% were on foot.

    There are two local taxi companies. Aerial Capital Group enjoyed monopoly status until the arrival of Cabxpress in 2007.[110] In October 2015, the ACT Government passed legislation to regulate ride sharing, allowing ride share services including Uber to operate legally in the Australian Capital Territory.[111] [112] [113] The ACT Government was the first jurisdiction in Australia to enact legislation to regulate the service.[114]

    An interstate NSW TrainLink railway service connects Canberra to Sydney. Canberra's railway station is in the inner south suburb of Kingston.[115] Train services to Melbourne are provided by way of a NSW TrainLink bus service which connects with a rail service between Sydney and Melbourne in Yass, about a one-hour drive from Canberra.

    Canberra is about three hours by road from Sydney on the Federal Highway (National Highway 23), which connects with the Hume Highway (National Highway 31) near Goulburn, and seven hours by road from Melbourne on the Barton Highway (National Highway 25), which joins the Hume Highway at Yass. It is a two-hour drive on the Monaro Highway (National Highway 23) to the ski fields of the Snowy Mountains and the Kosciuszko National Park. Batemans Bay, a popular holiday spot on the New South Wales coast, is also two hours away via the Kings Highway.

    Canberra Airport provides direct domestic services to Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide, Gold Coast, Hobart and Perth, with connections to other domestic centres.[116] There are also direct flights to regional cities: Dubbo and Newcastle in New South Wales. Regular direct international flights operate to Singapore and Doha from the airport daily, but both with a stopover in Sydney before Canberra.[117] [118] Canberra Airport is, as of September 2013, designated by the Australian Government Department of Infrastructure and Regional Development as a restricted use designated international airport.[119] Until 2003, the civilian airport shared runways with RAAF Base Fairbairn. In June of that year, the Air Force base was decommissioned and from that time the airport was fully under civilian control.[120]

    Utilities

    See also: Energy in the Australian Capital Territory. The government-owned Icon Water, formerly ACTEW, manages the territory's water and sewerage infrastructure.[121] ActewAGL is a joint venture between Icon and AGL, and is the retail provider of Australian Capital Territory's utility services including water, natural gas, electricity, and also some telecommunications services via a subsidiary TransACT.[122]

    Australian Capital Territory's water is stored in four reservoirs, the Corin, Bendora and Cotter dams on the Cotter River and the Googong Dam on the Queanbeyan River. Although the Googong Dam is located in New South Wales, it is managed by the ACT government.[123] Icon Water owns Australian Capital Territory's two wastewater treatment plants, located at Fyshwick and on the lower reaches of the Molonglo River.[124] [125]

    Electricity for the Australian Capital Territory mainly comes from the national power grid through substations at Holt and Fyshwick (via Queanbeyan).[126] Power was first supplied from a thermal plant built in 1913, near the Molonglo River, but this was finally closed in 1957.[127] [128] The ACT has four solar farms, which were opened between 2014 and 2017: Royalla (rated output of 20 megawatts, 2014),[129] Mount Majura (2.3 MW, 2016), Mugga Lane (13 MW, 2017)[130] and Williamsdale (11 MW, 2017).[131] In addition numerous houses in Canberra have photovoltaic panels or solar hot water systems. In 2015 and 2016, rooftop solar systems supported by the ACT government's feed-in tariff had a capacity of 26.3 megawatts, producing 34,910 MWh. In the same year, retailer-supported schemes had a capacity of 25.2 megawatts and exported 28,815 MWh to the grid (power consumed locally was not recorded).[132]

    The ACT has the highest rate with internet access at home (94 per cent of households in 2014–15).[133]

    Economy

    See main article: Economy of the Australian Capital Territory. The economic activity of the Australian Capital Territory is heavily concentrated around the city of Canberra.

    A stable housing market, steady employment and rapid population growth in the 21st century have led to economic prosperity and, in 2011, Commsec ranked the ACT as the second best performing economic region in the country.[134] This trend continued into 2016, when the territory was ranked the third best performing out of all of Australia's states and territories.[135]

    In 2017–18, the ACT had the fastest rate of growth in the nation due to a rapid growth in population, a strongly performing higher education sector as well as a significant housing and infrastructure investment.[136]

    Higher education is the territory's largest export industry.[137] The ACT is home to a significant number of universities and higher education providers. The other major services exports of the ACT in 2017–18 were government services and personal travel. The major goods exports of the territory in 2017–18 were gold coin, legal tender coin, metal structures and fish, though these represent a small proportion of the economy compared to services exports.

    The economy of the ACT is largely dependent on the public sector with 30% of the jobs in the territory being in the public sector.[138] Decisions by the federal government regarding the public service can have a significant impact on the territory's economy.

    The ACT's gross state product in 2017–18 was $39.8 billion which represented 2.2% of the overall gross domestic product of Australia. In 2017–18 the ACT economy grew by 4.0 per cent, the highest growth rate of any jurisdiction in Australia. This brought real economic growth over the three years to June 2018 to 12 per cent.[139]

    See also

    Bibliography

    • Book: The Penguin Australia Road Atlas . 2000 . Penguin Books Australia . Ringwood, Victoria . 0-670-88980-6 . .
    • Book: UBD Canberra . 2007 . North Ryde, New South Wales . Universal Publishers . 978-0-7319-1882-9 . .
    • Book: Vaisutis, Justine . Australia . Footscray, Victoria . Lonely Planet . 2009 . 978-1-74179-160-0.

    External links

    ]

  141. Commonwealth v Australian Capital Territory (2013) 250 CLR 441; [2013 HCA 55] (High Court of Australia) Land in the Territory that is designated to be "National Land" under federal law remains under the control of the federal government, usually represented by the National Capital Authority.[54] The federal parliament can disallow laws enacted by the Assembly by a joint resolution of both houses of Parliament, a power which replaced a federal executive veto in 2011.[55] [56]

    Judiciary and policing

    See also: Crime in the Australian Capital Territory. The judicial power of the Territory is exercised by the territory courts. These courts are the Supreme Court of the Australian Capital Territory, the Magistrates Court of the Australian Capital Territory and the ACT Civil and Administrative Tribunal. It is unique in that the territory does not have an intermediary court like other mainland states and territories; there is only the superior court and a court of summary jurisdiction. From 2001, appeals from the Supreme Court are heard by a panel of Supreme Court judges sitting as the Court of Appeal.[57] The current Chief Justice is Lucy McCallum and the current Chief Magistrate is Lorraine Walker.

    The Federal Court has concurrent jurisdiction over civil matters arising under Territory law, a fact which has become increasingly important to the practice of defamation law across Australia.[58] [59]

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