2.6 million years before present (hereinafter-Myr) the Hominids called Homo habilis living in East Africa, made ancient stone tools called choppers by chipping the edges of river stones. From that moment the Lower Paleolithic (Old Stone Age) culture began.
The diverse landscape of the Armenian Highland was exceptionally favorable for the habitation of hominids of the Paleolithic Homo species. Here the necessary raw materials for the creation of stone tools were available: andesite, dacite, obsidian, as well as arich variety of hunting animals and vegetable food, including widevariety of poaceae family plants, countless fresh springs, rivers andcreeks, which fulfilled the demand for drinking water anywhere inthe Highland.
In the last decades, several dozen sites of the Early Old StoneAge (Black Cross, Kurtan, etc.), and ancient assemblages of stonetools (Oldowan and Acheulian type of choppers, sharp edges tools,massive hand cutters with bilateral finishing) have been discoveredin the north of Armenia. The results of uranium-lead isotope decompositionindicate, that the absolute age of the early Acheuliancultural layers is 1,85-1,77 Myr. These are the oldest evidences ofthe existence of Homo erectus in the Eurasian vast region.In the late Acheulian (500-300 thousand years before present,hereinafter - Thyr) Armenia, tools (bifaces), hand axes, were found,made of double-sided pieces of obsidian and dacite, leaf-shaped,with sharp, symmetrical edges, the thick part of the base of thetools adapted to the human palm. To the North of Armenia, in thefoothills of the volcanic Javahk mountain range, around 30 ancientsites of the Old Stone Age were discovered: Blagodarnoe, Noramut,etc., in one of which a cultural layer was uncovered, whichcontained not only bifaces, but also the entire collection of theirpreparatory materials: cores, flakes, blades and other small items,that testify the complete cycle of tool making at the site. The regularshapes, fine transverse section and careful finishing of the cuttingedges of the Acheulian hand-axes made of dacite, indicate, thattheir main group dates back to the Late Acheulian epoch (500-250Thyr).
Late Acheulian finds were also discovered in the Hrazdan rivervalley (Arzni, Nurnus, Satani Dar, Erkar Blur, Gutanasar, Jraber, Hatis, etc.), on the southwestern slopes of ArtinMountain and the Aragats massif (Satani Dar,Dashtadem).[1] The number of tools made by the Neanderthals,the most advanced of the hominids found inthe Late Acheulian and Middle Paleolithic (250-40Thyr) Armenia, reaches to thousands. In the middlephase of the Lower Paleolithic period, the Neanderthalslived in caves near rivers (Yerevan 1, Lusakert1–2, Arzni, Hovk, Kalavan, Aghitu, etc.) and inhigh plateaus (southern slopes of Aragats: Dashtadem,Arteni, Syunik –at the foot of Amulsar andelsewhere). The Expedition of the Research Centerof Historical and Cultural Heritage discoveredlate Acheulian bifaces in 2012–2021, in the southof the Republic of Armenia, in Syunik region, atthe headwaters of Vorotan, on a plateau 2200–2300m above the sea level. Throughout the whole 5 kmlong and 2–3 km wide upland area there are tens ofthousands of obsidian cores, tools, rubble and fragmentstypical of the Late Acheulian, Middle andUpper Palaeolithic era.
Armenia is one of those places where in 120-100 Thyr inhabitation processes took place (NorGeghi 1, Aghavnatun, Bagratashen). In the LateStone Age, 60-40 Thyr a number of caves were inhabited(Yerevan 1, Lusakert, Barozh). During thelast (Vyrumyan) glacial period, there were harshclimatic conditions in the Armenian Highland, as aresult of which the traces of human-Homo Sapiensactivities are small in number (Aghitu - 35-24 Thyrand Kalavan 1 - 18-16 Thyr).[2]
In 12 thousand years before present, after theend of the (Vyurmyan) Ice Age and the melting ofthe glaciers along the eastern coast of the Mediterranean- in the Levant, on the slopes of the EasternTaurus Mountains and in the northern Mesopotamia,which were rich in hunting animals and poaceaefamily plants, the hunter-gatherer groups beganto cultivate these plants and tame animals. Theterritory stretching from Eastern Taurus up to theGreater Caucasus Range, which separates the Middle East from the Eurasian Steppe, is an environment of sharprelief variations, cut by high mountain ranges. At its center theArmenian Highland is located, the favorable climatic conditionsof which enabled the local inhabitants to continue their huntingand gathering lifestyle, at the same time being engaged in animalhusbandry and food cultivation.
The presence of exceptionally rich resources of obsidian inthe Highland predetermined the culture of Armenia in the Neolithicperiod (New Stone Age). The obsidian in Arteni, Hatis andNemrut mountains, in the Vorotan river basin, Kotayk plateauand in other mines was not only processed in the local area,but was also exported in large quantities to neighboring regions,particularly to south-west Asia. A huge number of artifacts weremade from obsidian: agricultural and production tools, ritualobjects, weapons and jewelry. In Mesopotamia and in othervalley regions, the bartering of highly demanded obsidian andprimitive trade facilitated the accumulation of wealth and economicstratification among communities and later among largersocial units. One of the important routes was the movement ofthe Syunik obsidian from the ancient site of Godedzor to thebasin of Lake Urmia and to other valley regions of the Ubaidculture.[3]
About 7000 years BC a groups of settlements were formedin the Ararat valley, near the left-bank tributaries of the Araks River. Among them are the monuments Aratashen, Masis Blur (hill) and Aknashen, which were investigated within the framework of international archeological programs. These sites, especially Aknashen, are connected with the Shulaveri–Shomu culture that flourished in South Caucasus from about 6000 BC onward.
These late Neolithic villages consisted of densely built clustersof houses and of other structures. The majority of buildingsbuilt of clay and mud (unfired) bricks had a round or oval floorplan.The inhabitants cultivated several types of wheat, barleyand lentils, raised sheep, goats and cattle, were engaged in huntingand fishing.[4] The excavations resulted in the discovery of a large numberof artefacts skillfully made from obsidian, river stone, bone, antlerand shell, which were used for processing wood and fur andsewing clothes from wool and leather.Two important productions were introduced into Armenia'slate Neolithic economy: pottery and copper mining. The latterwas one of the first steps of mankind in metal processing. In the6th millennium BC collections, the local rough products dominated.
High-quality, colorful vessels were also found, belongingto the Halaf style and were probably imported from Northern Mesopotamia. The jewelries, mainly beads, were also madeof copper and became the first metal artefacts known to us(Choyunyu tepesi).[5] Copper jewelries and artistic pottery ledto the development of a new type of long-distance trade. Specializedcraft centers now became important raw materialsupplying regions.
The Chalcolithic (or Eneolithic) period in South-West Asia began in 5500-5200 BC and lasted for about two millennia until 3500 BC. It is characterized by the development of coppersmithing, although stone tools were still dominant in the economy.
In the last four decades, many Chalcolithicsettlements were discovered throughout the territory of modernArmenia. Four of which- Adablur and Teghut in the AraratValley, Areni-1 in Vayots Dzor, Godedzor in Syunik, havebeen partially excavated. All of them date back to 4500-3400BC.[6] Teghut was a small herders’ village involved in animalhusbandry, consisting of semi-earthen, round foorplan huts.High quality pottery, as well as copper tools imported fromother places, were found here. Adablur was obviously bigger.This settlement consisted of large, multi-room complexes thatstretched along the streets. Remains of workshops and claysculptures were found here.
The dry environment and stable temperature of the Areni-1 cave in the Arpa river gorge created excellent conditionsfor the preservation of organic materials. Grain, fruit, cloth,leather and even grass, that were usually not preserved elsewhere,led us into an unknown world of artifacts, createdduring the Chalcolithic period. Unique is the oldest knownwinepress in the world, dating back to 4000 BC and the ancientleather shoe dating back to 3600 BC, found in the depthof the Areni cave.[7] Godedzor is located in an area of high mountain, alpinepastures. It was an important checkpoint and exchange centerfor mobile herdsman. Here, was accumulated the obsidian,brought from the mines located on the distance of two or threedays’ walk, and was then exported. The signs on the seals thatwere put on clay, testify the existence of private, most likelyfamily property marking tradition.
See main article: Kura–Araxes culture. In the middle of the IV millennium BC, a unique culture wasformed in Armenia, as well as some adjacent areas, which became known in archaeology as the Kura–Araxes culture. The earliest evidence for this culture is found on the Ararat plain.[8] It survived for more than a millennium and, developing, covered a vast territory extending from theNorth Caucasus (Chechnya) to Israel (Dead Sea), from EasternAsia Minor (Amid) to Central Iran (Godin Tepe) having the ArmenianHighland at its core -particularly the Ararat valley andthe foothills near it.[9]
The Armenian civilization, attested in theterritories of 12 modern states, is known to the scientific worldunder various names. Among which, the most widespread arethe denominations Kur-Araks (Kura–Araxes) and Shengavit. This civilization ischaracterized by an agricultural sedentary economy, with morethan a thousand settlements densely covering the fertile riversidevalleys, high plateaus and high mountain zones of the ArmenianHighland and neighbouring regions.
The Early Bronze Age artificialhill-settlements were characterized by multiple cultural layers,which in some places spread to tens of meters (Mokhrablurof Nakhijevan, Norsun-Tepe).[10] The economy was based on irrigated agriculture and cattleraising. Probably, it was at this period, that the huge irrigationsystems built on the slopes of Aragats and Geghama mountainswere formed and at the sources of canals, artificial water poolsand springs, huge dragon stones (vishapakar) made from onepiecebasalt, typical of Armenian culture, were erected. Extremelyplentiful were the flint inserts for sickles, work tools made ofbone, obsidian and river stones.
Another prerequisite for unprecedentedeconomic development was copper production. A largenumber of weapon and tools made of arsenical bronze are attestedby both the finds treasures near Yerevan and the stone andclay molds found in various ancient sites of Shengavit civilization(Shengavit, Margahovit, etc.). In the Shengavit ancient site,weight standards, similar to those used in the Levant, were found,which testify the Armenia's involvement in the newly formed internationaltrade relations in the Early Bronze Age.[11] Diverse types of weapons are found: arrows, daggers, battleaxes, spears and other weapons made of obsidian, flint, bone andbronze.
Mudbrick architecture was characteristic of this culture. Themudbrick made from sandy clay, with the help of mold formsand dried in the sun, was the main building material from which walls, temples, residential and economic buildings, hydro-engineeringstructures were built. The foundations of the houses weremade of river stones, cracked or unprocessed basalt (Shengavit,Harich, Karaz, Amiranisgora, etc.), on which mudbrick wallswere raised. Round buildings with a diameter of 4–10 m and rectangularfloorplan were widespread.[12] The latter had a flat, log roof,and the buildings with round floorplan had primitive roofs of“hazarashen” type, covered with clay mudbricks with reed, witha skylights hole in the centre of the roof, that solved the issues oflight and ventilation of the house (Shengavit, Mokhrablur).
Thefloors were of rammed earth. There were also plaster covered,up to 10 cm thick (Shengavit) and red painted (Garakepek-Tepe)floors. There are found samples of attempts to enliven the monotonousclay walls with decoration and with shaped arrangement ofbricks of different color and to enlighten the monotonous appearanceof the walls with various colors (Shengavit, Mokhrablur inNakhijevan, Yanik-tepe, etc.).[13]
Among the settlements with an area of 1-10 ha, the centralones were surrounded by fortified walls built of stone (Shengavit,Garni, Persi, Khorenia-Javakhk) and of mud-brick (Mokhrablur,Goy-tepe, Gudaberteke), with artificial puddles (Norabats,Kvatskhelebi, Khizannat-gora). Noteworthy is the fortified wallof Shengavit with its stone foundations, reinforced with rectangularmasonry walls and a tiled secret passage leading to Hrazdanriver. The central urban areas, which are characterized by denseconstruction (Shengavit, Mokhrablur, etc.), were surrounded bysatellite-residences.[14]
The bearers of the Shengavit culture had a complex religioussystem. In the central part of the Mokhrablur settlement, in the IIIconstruction horizon, a volume-spatial creation was uncovered: astructure-tower with a rectangular plan (7,4x5,5 m) constructedwith hard tuff, in the eastern part of which a 3,9 m long one-piecebasalt altar was placed. Near this stone structure, clay buildingsand ash pits were uncovered, in which the ashes of the sacredhearths had been accumulated.Many tufa idols, clay hearths were excavated in the Shengavitsettlement.
In 2012 year a complex cult system was excavated-aroom with a rectangular plan, designed specifically for ritual ceremonies,inside which a clay altar was uncovered decorated withrelief ornaments on its front. A statue of an idol was affixed intothe altar and goblets for libation were placed in front of the heart.To the right from the stairs leading to the semisubterranean roomof the shrine, two clay–packed basins were found, in which theashes from the sacred fire were kept. A phallic pendant-idol wasfound in the shrine, which was probably the identifying symbolof the priestess. The adjacent room of the complex reflects householdactivities.
A similar cultic complex was found at the ancientsite of Pulur (Sakyol).[15] (This location was later flooded by the Keban Dam). Inside the religious structures, in front of the altars, terracottacult hearths were located, which were unique to the Shengavitculture, with a diameter of up to one meter, the edges of the innerspace resembled a ship bow divided into three parts, the upperplatforms were red-painted and decorated with geometric figures.Statuette of women and men, as well as of worship animals,such as horses, bulls and rams were found near these hearths.The horseshoe-shaped mobile shrines with ram protomes, threeleggedpedestals, phallus-shaped pendant figures were also of religiousnature.
One of the inseparable spheres of religious practice was theburial ritual. Outside the settlements, special burial grounds wereformed in their immediate vicinity. Both individual tombs withearthen and tiled walls, as well as wide ancestral tombs with stonewalls were revealed, in which the deceased (Joghaz) of the upper-class family were sequentially buried. In the final stage of thiscivilization, collective burials were performed, in which humansacrifices were also performed. These tombs contain numerousartifacts, that indications of social stratification: gold and silverjewelry, bronze tools and weapons, imported valuable items.
Early city-type settlements, temples, fortified walls, advancedcraftsmanship-metallurgy, stonework/masonry, pottery,textile production, wine and beer production, transport, unifiedweight system, ritually formed system, elite tombs and other featurestestify the high level of development of the Shengavit civilization.
At the depth of the Shengavit civilization, a new, early burial moundculture was formed, which yet preserved separate pottery traditions. Inthe middle of the 3rd millennium BC major changes took place in the socio-cultural, as well as political life of Armenia. The Shengavit social-culturalwholeness, that was experiencing a deep economic crisis, finally collapsed.Indo-European tribes settled in the central and northern regions ofthe Armenian Highland. As a result of the fusion of newcomers and locals,archaeological cultures of early burial mounds, Treghk-Vanadzor, KarmirBerd, Sevan-Artsakh and Karmir Vank were formed. Acting as a group ofrelated cultures, they occupied almost the entire territory of the ArmenianHighland-the range of the basins of Urmia, Vana and Sevan lakes and theneighbouring areas, up to the Great Caucasus mountain range. In contrastto the Shengavit civilization, the economy of the Middle Bronze Age wasdominated by animal husbandry. This is witnessed not only by the osteologicalmaterials, but also by the abundance of burial grounds, whichmake up 70% of the monuments known to us. The earliest samples ofdomestic horse sacrifice are attested (Nerkin Naver, 23rd-21st centuriesBC).Trophy also played an important role in the economy of the MiddleBronze Age. After successful wars, huge funds were accumulated in thehands of the leader-kings and councils, which became the basis for theflourishing of art and crafts. In the “Palace” workshops, skilled craftsmenprepared exceptional pieces of art. Armenia was involved in the internationaltrade network, the evidence of which is the similarity of luxury items,weapons, and precious metalware with archaeological artifacts found in thecenter of Southwest Asia.In architectural forms dominant were the construtions with rectangularfloorplan (Yerkaruk Blur, Metsamor, Ashtarak fort). Immense burialmounds appeared intended for individual burials, consisting of a stone armour,with cromlech lined around its perimeter and with earthen, rockhewnor stone-covered burial cells with rectangular, sometimes roundedcorners, dug in the central part. The deceased were laid in the grave withtheir limbs bent, men lying on their right, women on their left. Deceasedmembers of the elite were cremated. This ritual, as in the Hittite kingdom,was the monopoly of the council of elders and priests. The diameter ofroyal tombs reached 50 m, with depth of 7 m and with the area of the tombhalls of 150 square meters.In the Middle Bronze Age, the cremation ritual specific to the elite ofArmenia, the huge sizes of tombs, the luxurious as well as gold and silverdishes, imported items, human sacrifices matched with the Hittite and Mesopotamian royal tombs. Such tombs were excavated in Treghk, Martkopi, AlazaniValley, Javahkq, Aruch, Mayisyan, Karashamb, Vanadzor, Nerkin Naver, Gorayk andelsewhere.Exceptional is the Zorats karer (Karahunj) monument near the city of Sisian. Thestone path of circular and straight lined menhirs (upright standing stones) stretches forhundreds of meters. Some scientists believe, that it was once an ancient observatory.The cultural heritage of the Middle Bronze Age of Armenia, the exquisite masterpiecesof applied art and artistic metalwork (toreutics) are among the brightest pagesof the centuries-old creativity of the Armenian people, when the tribal creative spiritbursts with indescribable power, creating masterpieces of art inspired with barbaricgrandeur (gold cups covered with precious stones, and doule-layers of Treghk, withheraldicly positioned lion sculptures of Vanadzor, silver, episodic decorated cups ofKarashamb and Koruktash with ancient sayings of Indo-European mythology depictedson them). There was a great variety of jewels and luxury items: dressers, necklaces,beads, cufflinks, mirrors and others, made of gold, silver, bronze, semi-precious stones (cornelion, jasper, jet stone, onyx, obsidian,amethyst, etc.), multicolor glasses andtinglazed pottery.[16] In the applied art, noteworthy was the multicolorand single-color pottery, the ornamentationof which almost resembled to painting,with its play of colors and expressiveness (NerkinNaver, Treghq, Getashen, Elar, Aparan,Aruch, etc.). Vessels with black polished, reliefzones and dotted decorations are also highlyvaluable artistic pieces, which together withcolorful pottery formed the festive tableware.[17]
As a result of the evolutionary development of the MiddleBronze Age, the unified culture of the Late Bronze Age was formedin Armenia. It was characterized with the wide spread of cities, fortifications,monumental architecture, with the formation of the classof kings and princes at the highest level of society, of the aristocracysurrounding them and the class of professional warriors, aswell as with the appearance of the first samples of the earliest writtenmonuments (Verin Naver, Shamiram, Utik). In the ArmenianHighland and also in Kakheti (Georgia), i.e., in the whole area ofMiddle Bronze Age, that includes colored pottery, a uniform cultureof the Late Bronze Age was established-weapons, jewelries,tools and household items were copied with exceptional similarityin monuments placed hundreds of kilometers far.[18] Particularly powerfulcenters were formed in Aragatsotn (Verin Naver, MetsamorOshakan, Ujan, Shamiram), in Sevan Lake Basin (Lchashen), in Artsakh (Arajadzor), in Utik (Khanlar), in Gugark (Vanadzor, LoriBerd), in Shirak (Horom, Harich, Artik), in Upper Armenia (BardzrHayk) and elsewhere. As a result of the merger of the tribes andtribal unions of the Armenian Highland, in which dominant wasthe Indo-European ethnic element, the first powerful state formationswere created: Etiuni, Hayasa, Mitani, Armenia-Shubria, etc.In this period, ends the first stage of formation of the Armeniancivilization.[19] Armenia is one of those regions of the ancient world, wherethe principles of fortifications originated and were formated.[20] Theprinciple of building strong fortified wall chains in order to protectthe settlements from external danger and to control the approachroutes, was launched in Armenia in the Early Bronze Age, wasdeveloped in the Middle Bronze Age (Ashtarak Fortress), but wasfinally formed and widely used in the Late Bronze Age, layingthe foundation for the culture of the so-called “Cyclopean” castlesor forts, highly typical to the Armenian culture. They had 3-7rows of surrounding fortified walls and occupied an area of 40-60hetares, and in some separate cases- more than 100 hectares ofarea (Motkan Fortress). Almost the entire territory of the ArmenianHighland was densely covered with forts (several hundredof forts are known), which were built in places difficult to access:on the high slopes of mountains, on the conical tops of hills, onpromontories surrounded on three sides by steep gorges. Amongthe characteristic features of the forts were the maximum use ofthe opportunities of its relief, the strengthening of walls and entranceswith rectangular masonry, the establishment of seven rowsof walls on the road leading to the fort. The preserved height of thewalls reaches to 7 m (Tghit), the thickness is 3–6 m (Motkan fort,Tsitsernakaberd, etc.).[21] Temple complexes were excavated in Dvin, Metsamorand Gegharot. In the sanctuaries of Dvin, terracotta rectangularboard-altars, decorated with animals and geometric relief figures,were discovered, in front of which unquenchable fire was lit. Thehuman-shaped sculptures of various sizes in the adoration positionuncovered in Metsamor Cathedral, symbolized the trinity of father,mother and son.[22] The tombs of the elite had stone-earthen tombs up to 50 m indiameter and 2 m in height, in the central part of which were halfground-dug tomb halls, with a rectangular floorplan, built of tufaand basalt giant stones with flattened fronts. They had both straightlined walls and log-slab comlex roofs (Lchashen, Verin Naver,Zorats Karer), as well as walls gradually narrowing upwards andstructures covered with one-piece slabs (Verin Naver, Shamiram). The walls of the tombhalls were covered with carpets, rugs andexpensive animal furs. Specially brought river stones were usedto form the cromlechs, from which started the tomb entrances,that sloped down to the tomb hall (dramos). The sizes of thetombs, the richness and multi-functionality of the funerary offerings(weapons, tools, symbols of power), ritual objects, jewelries,household and cult objects, chariots, carts and catafalques,human, bird, domestic and wild animal, including lion (VerinNaver) large number sacrifices testify the burials of kings andsupreme priests at this sites.In the royal tomb (16th-15th centuries BC), excavated in VerinNaver, in 2012, were found items imported from Babylon(glazed clay beads), Persian Gulf (sea snails from the PersianGulf), China (jade), medallions (bitum) with ingraved portraitsof leader-kings covered with gold plate and cufflinks with imagesof argali and trees of life. These items have strong resemblanceto the samples of Middle Elamite art.Unique is the round bronze sculpture belonging to the middleof the II millennium BC. The realism, that was characteristicof the ancient art of Armenia of this era reached to an admirableexpressiveness. Metal-plastic samples were made of meltedbronze with high fluidity, in wax molds, which implied that eachof them was unique and unrepeatable. Bronze sculpture is characterizedwith a highly specific thematic repertoire. It representsanthropomorphic deities, mythological heroes, worshiped animals(bull, goat, deer) and birds (golden eagle, dove, etc.). Thesestatues were attached to crosiers, coats of arms (shtandart) andchariots. Noteworthy are the group of sculptures with mythologicalplots, the compositions of which are characterized withrhythmic balance. Notable are the scale models of two-wheeledchariots, in which the position of the torsos of the warriors giveus the sense of the galloping style of the chariots.The sculpture of a bearded soldier is unique in the metalworkof Lori Fortress. The sculpture of this hero with swastikas(Armenian eternity sign) on his thighs, broad-shoulder, narrow-back and powerful thighs seemed to foreshow the foundationsof masculine beauty, that later became canonical in Greekart. The sculpture of a hero in Shirakavan, with chained fearsomewild beast (lion) depicts the characters of the hero and thebeast endowed with tremendous strength. Most likely, it is theprototype of the lion-shaped Mher - one of the favorite heroes ofthe Armenian epic poetry.In the Early Iron Age, metalwork was of smaller size. Therewere found miniatures of battle idols, figurines of women and men, as well as of dogs, goats, horses, deer and birds, which characterizethe piculiarities of the heroes: strength, elegance, fiercenature, athletic figure, etc. (Paravakar, Ayrum, Artsvakar).A special field of art is the iconography of bronze belts.Among the hundreds of belts found in Armenia, the examplesof Lchashen, Stepanavan and Astgh hill are the most noticeableones. Broad bronze plates depict (with carvings) sacred conception,mythological and domestic, battle and hunting scenes. Thecentral plot is surrounded by two-three rows of edgeband withfir-shape or “running” gyre decorations. Carved figures have solemn-static or pronounced plastic mobility. Along with realisticfigures, there are also numerous figures of people and animals offantastic shape. Depictions of deer, goat, bird, celestial luminary,lion-faced men and horned horses (unicorns) were particularlywidespread. The chariot battle scenes give an idea of the structureof the Armenian armed forces of that period, which consisted ofheavily weaponed infantry, armed with long spears and rectangular,large shields, of light cavalry, vanguard and rearguard regiments.The personal seals of the kings and rulers of Mesopotamiafound in the tombs of the elite (Metsamor) testify, that the Armenianarmies fought successful battles in the territory of the mostpowerful states, bringing rich booty from there.
At the beginning of the 6th century BC, in the Middle East,the kingdoms of new Assyria, Babylon, Egypt and Van weredestroyed. The vast polity called Urartu or Armina, (mentionedin the Behistun trilingual inscription of Darius the Great) whichstretched from Anti-Taurus mountains to the Caspian Sea, fromMesopotamia to the banks of the Kur River, belonged to theArmenian Yervandean (Orontid) dinasty. Armenia is mentionedin the works of the 6th century Greek historian Hecataeus ofMiletus, Herodotus, Xenophon, Polybius, Strabo and of others.Armenia became the full political and cultural heir of theKingdom of Van. After 5 bloody battles, Armenia got under thecontrol of Achaemenid Persian Empire. Darius the Great formedthe 13th and 18th satrapies in Armenia. The Royal road built byDarius the Great passed though Armenia and connected Persiawith the Mediterranean. The Yervandean (Orontid) kings had animportant role in Achaemenid Persia and had a semi-independentstatus.In Yervandean Armenia, several spheres flourish, amongthem the artistic metalwork, the best examples of which were found near the Erebuni fortress, in Armavir, Van, Yerznka andelsewhere, as well as the glyptic (hardstone carving) and the so-called apadana architecture (Erebuni).In the decisive Battle of Gaugamela (331) by Alexander theGreat's eastern campaign, the Armenian troops fighting on theright wing of Darius III army, severely pressured the Macedonians.After the collapse of the Achaemenid Empire and the establishmentof the Seleucid Empire, Armenia was gradually includedin the Hellenistic civilization. Armenia was independentduring the time of Alexander and his Diadochi.In 201, another Yervandean dinasty member, ArtashesI (201-163 BC), took the throne from Yervand, the king ofthe Greater Armenia. In 189 BC, Artashes declared Armeniaas an independent country and reunited the bordersof Yervandean Armenia, bringing back the lost provinces.In Strabo's Geography it is testified, that at thattime everyone in Armenia spoke Armenian. Aramaicwas also used by the elite, in which the boundary stonesof Artashes I are recorded. During the reign of the Artaxiaddynasty, urban development flourished in Armenia.Along with the ancient cities of Van, Armavir, Erebuni, theArmenian kings founded dozens of other cities, which theynamed after themselves: Samosat, Arsamea, Arshamashat,Yervandashat, Tigranakert and Artashat. The latter, accordingto Plutarch's testimony, was built by the advice of the Carthagemilitary commander Hannibal. These were some of the populousand prosperous cities on the Silk Road, an international traderoute that streched from China and India to the Mediterranean,attested by a number of Greco-Roman historians. Local, easternand western cultures were reflected in them, as attested by theresults of the excavations. Various crafts flourished. Armenia importedgoods and exported agricultural and handicraft products,minerals, as attested by the Roman historian Pliny the Elder. Themasters of Armenia were especially skilled in artistic metalwork.This is evidenced by the highly artistic jewelry found in Van, Armavir,Artashat, and Lori fortress: bracelets ending with animalheads, brooches, precious metal dishes. In particular, noteworthyare the shaped handles of vessels and silver drinking vessel.The largest of the states of Hellenistic Armenia was MetsHayk (Kingdom of Armenia), which reached the peak of its powerunder the ruler of the East, king of kings Tigran the Great (95-56 AD). He defeated the Parthians and removed the armies of theRoman Empire from the banks of the Euphrates, as well as regulated transit trade between East and West. One of its capitals, Tigranakert,was built according to a pre-planned project - in the upper basin of Tigris.Powerful fortresses were built, particularly Garni, mentioned by the Romanhistorian Tacitus. Hellenistic Armenia was included in the political, economicand cultural processes of the Old World. For the purpose of meeting therequirements of monetary circulation, Armenia created it own drams. The Armenianculture was a synthesis of Hellenistic and Ancient Eastern cultures,with a very traditional content. It became one of the sources of culture in theChristian East.The Artashesid dynasty was replaced in Armenia by the Arshakunis (66AD). Significant changes in cultural and political life were observed fromthis period on. Armenian cities, particularly Artashat, became key centers ofinternational trade. The water supply of urban settlements was improved. Armenia'strade and economic ties extended to Western Europe, Central Asia,the Crimean Peninsula and Egypt. In the field of pottery, the growth of qualitativefeatures became noticeable. Glassmaking and the art of terracotta figurinesbecame widely popular. The walls of temples, palaces and rich houseswere decorated with multi-colored plaster, murals, gypsum cornice, roofswere covered with tiles.From the middle of the 3rd century, both Sasanian Persian Empire andRoman influences became noticeable in Armenia (Garni Temple, the Mosaicof Garni Temple), but Hellenistic traditions prevailed. Their influence wasparticularly evident in the art of Agtsk terracotta basreliefs, which featurednaturalistic sculptures of lions chasing the deer, tigers chasing the rams, cameleating thistle, simurgh bird- a mythical bird with eagle legs and peacock'shead and tail standing in front of the tree of life.In 301, after adopting Christianity as the state religion, under the influenceof a new ideology, a new culture is formed in Armenia.[23]