Arbutus unedo explained

Arbutus unedo, commonly known as strawberry tree, or chorleywood in the United Kingdom, is an evergreen shrub or small tree in the family Ericaceae, native to the Mediterranean Basin and Western Europe. The tree is well known for its fruits, the arbutus berry, which bear some resemblance to the strawberry, hence the common name strawberry tree.[1] [2] [3] However, it is not closely related to true strawberries of the genus Fragaria.

Its presence in Ireland also lends it the name "Irish strawberry tree", or cain, or cane apple (from the Irish name for the tree, caithne[4]), or sometimes "Killarney strawberry tree". The strawberry tree is the national tree of Italy because of its green leaves, its white flowers and its red berries, colors that recall the Italian flag.[5]

Taxonomy

Arbutus unedo was one of the many species described by Carl Linnaeus in Volume One of his landmark 1753 work Species Plantarum, giving it the name it still bears today.[6]

A study published in 2001 which analyzed ribosomal DNA from Arbutus and related genera found Arbutus to be paraphyletic, and A. unedo to be closely related to the other Mediterranean Basin species such as A. andrachne and A. canariensis and not to the western North American members of the genus.[7]

Arbutus unedo and A. andrachne hybridise naturally where their ranges overlap; the hybrid has been named Arbutus × andrachnoides (syn. A. × hybrida, or A. andrachne × unedo),[8] inheriting traits of both parent species, though fruits are not usually borne freely, and as a hybrid is unlikely to breed true from seed.It is sold in California as Arbutus x Marina named for a district in San Francisco where it was hybridized.

Description

Arbutus unedo grows to 4m-7mm (13feet-23feetm) tall,[9] rarely up to 15round=5NaNround=5, with a trunk diameter of up to 800NaN0. It grows in hardiness zones 7–10.

The leaves are green and glossy on the upper side, dull on the underside, 8– long and 3– broad, laurel-like and with a serrated or serrulated margin.

The hermaphrodite flowers are white (yellow when desiccated), bell-shaped, 7- in diameter, and flower from a reddish hanging panicle in autumn. They are pollinated by bees, and have a mild sweet scent.

Twigs are reddish-brown and abundantly foliose, and often have small hairs.

The fruit is a red berry, 7- diameter, spherical in shape with a rough surface. It matures in about 12 months, in autumn, at the same time as the next flowering. It is edible; the fruit is sweet when reddish. Seeds are small, brown and angular and are often dispersed by frugivorous birds.[10]

The name unedo is attributed to Pliny the Elder, who allegedly claimed that "unum tantum edo", meaning "I eat only one".[11] It is not known whether he meant that the fruit was so good he could eat only one, or whether he meant that the fruit was uninteresting so he ate only one.[12]

Distribution

Arbutus unedo is widespread in the Mediterranean region: in Portugal, Spain and southeastern France; southward in Algeria, Morocco, Libya, and Tunisia, and eastward in Italy, Slovenia, Croatia, Montenegro, Greece, Turkey, Israel, Palestine, Jordan, Lebanon and Syria. It is also found in western France, Albania, Bulgaria and southwestern Ireland.

A. unedo has been noted for its disjunct distribution, with isolated relict populations in southern and western Ireland in addition to its Mediterranean range. It is commonly cited as an example of the Lusitanian flora, a small assemblage of plants native to Iberia and South-Western Ireland, but generally absent from Britain. Recent genetic studies have suggested that A. unedo may not be truly native in Ireland, but a Neolithic introduction.[13]

The red-flowered variant, named A. unedo rubra by William Aiton in 1785, was discovered growing wild in Ireland in 1835.

Cultivation

Arbutus unedo is quite an easy plant to cultivate, and is adaptable to many climates. Once established it is fairly drought resistant, frost resistant, shade tolerant and salt tolerant.[14]

Lower production of fruit mass has however been reported in case of summer droughts, and frosts in flowering time were seen to decrease the numbers of fruits.[15]

Arbutus unedo is naturally adapted to dry summer climates, and has become a very popular ornamental plant in California and the rest of the west coast of North America. It can grow easily in USDA hardiness zone 7 or warmer.[16]

It also grows well in the cool, wet summers of western Ireland and England, and temperate regions of Europe and Asia. Pests include scales and thrips, and diseases include anthracnose, Phytophthora, root rot, and rust.

Unlike most of the Ericaceae, A. unedo grows well in basic (limy) pH soils, even though it does better in more acidic soils.

The fruit production is not very high and is highly variable on the weather, and that may be part of the reason this plant is not frequently cultivated. The average yield in a two years study is around 46 kg per hectare, and 180 grams per cubic metre of crown.[17] However, very little work has so far been done in terms of genotype selection.[18]

Arbutus unedo has been seen to form a mycorrhizal relationship. Inoculation with Pisolithus tinctorius has shown to greatly improve the plant's root mass, size, tolerance to drought and nutritional status.[19] [20]

In cultivation in the UK, the form A. unedo f. rubra[21] and the cultivar 'Atlantic'[22] have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit

Propagation

Propagation can be done via seed,[23] layering, or cutting.

The seed should undergo a one-month cold stratification period,[24] then soaked for 5 to 6 days in warm water to improve germination success. Seedlings are prone to damp, and should be cared for in the first year.

Germination rate is low, rarely over 20%.[25]

Layering can take up to two years, but has a good success rate, while cutting is done with a NaNfrac=2NaNfrac=2 long mature wood, preferably with a heel in November to December. The success rate however is not very high.[26]

Uses

Culinary uses

Arbutus berries have a high content of sugars (40%), and antioxidant vitamins[27] such as vitamin C, beta-carotene, niacin, tocopherols, and organic acids that are precursors to omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids (nearly 9%).[28] [29] They are edible fresh, but that is an uncommon consumption, especially because the mature fruit tends to bruise very easily, making transportation difficult.

They are used mostly for jam, marmalades, yogurt and alcoholic beverages,[30] [28] such as the Portuguese medronho, a type of strong brandy. Many regions of Albania prepare the traditional drink rakia from the fruits of the plant (mare or kocimare in Albanian), whence comes the name of the drink, which is raki kocimarje.

The flowers are pollinated by bees, and the resulting honey is bitter tasting but still considered a delicacy.[31]

Herbal medicine

Arbutus unedos leaves have been employed in traditional and folk medicine in the form of a decoction said to have the following properties: astringent, diuretic, urinary anti-septic, antiseptic, intoxicant, rheumatism, tonic, and more recently, in the therapy of hypertension and diabetes.[30] [32] [33]

The leaves are reported to have a high concentration of flavonol antioxidants, especially quercetin, best extracted with a decoction, and together with the fruits are a source of antioxidants.[34] [35]

The nectar contains the isoprenoid unedone (2-(1,2-dihydroxypropyl)-4,4,8-trimethyl-1-oxaspiro[2.5]oct-7-en-6-one) which is biologically active against a common and debilitating parasite of bumble bees, Crithidia bombi, so could provide a naturally occurring way for bees to withstand the burden of disease which has been reported to be a contributing factor in pollinator declines. The compound is glycosylated to an inactive form unedone-8-O-glycoside once consumed by the bee (perhaps to reduce any toxic effects against the bee) then transformed back to the active aglycone by the bee's microbiome in the hindgut where the parasite is most prevalent and damaging - suggesting that the microbiome assists in the anti-parasitic process.[36]

Ecological design

In landscape design, ecosystem restoration or permaculture based designs, A. unedo can have many purposes. While the ornamental one is the most common, this can be a valuable plant also for restoring degraded ecosystems and preventing desertification. Being a pioneer plant and growing well also in poor soils, it can be used in a wide array of situations.

Other uses

History

Its Mediterranean habitat, elegant details of leaf and habit and dramatic show of fruit with flowers made Arbutus unedo notable in Classical Antiquity, when it was called Andrachne, and for which Theophrastos (4th c. BCE) wrote about it, as well as the ancient army medical herbalist Pedanios Dioscorides [De Materia Medica, Book II-150]; in addition, Pliny thought it should not be planted where bees are kept, for the bitterness it imparts to honey.

The first evidence of its importation into northern European gardens was to 16th-century England from Ireland. In 1586 a correspondent in Ireland sent plants to the Elizabethan courtiers Lord Leicester and Sir Francis Walsingham.[40] An earlier description by Rev. William Turner (The Names of Herbes, 1548) was probably based on hearsay. The Irish association of Arbutus in English gardens is reflected in the inventory taken in 1649 of Henrietta Maria's Wimbledon: "one very fayre tree, called the Irish arbutis standing in the midle parte of the sayd kitchin garden, very lovely to look upon"[40] By the 18th century Arbutus unedo was well known enough in English gardens for Batty Langley to make the bold and impractical suggestion that it might be used for hedges, though it "will not admit of being clipped as other evergreens are".[40]

In the United States, Thomas Jefferson lists the plant in his Monticello gardens in 1778.[41]

The form A. unedo f. rubra[42] and the hybrid A. × andrachnoides,[43] have gained the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit.

Symbolic uses

Ancient history

The tree is mentioned by Roman poet Ovid, in Book I: 89–112 "The Golden Age" of his Metamorphoses: "Contented with food that grew without cultivation, they collected mountain strawberries and the fruit of the strawberry tree, wild cherries, blackberries clinging to the tough brambles, and acorns fallen from Jupiter's spreading oak-tree."[44]

The name of the Italian promontory Mount Conero, situated directly south of the port of Ancona on the Adriatic Sea, derives from the Greek name κόμαρος (komaròs) indicating the strawberry tree which is common on the slopes of the mountain.[45] Mount Conero, the only coastal high point on the Adriatic sea between Trieste and the Gargano massif in the region of Apulia, has assisted navigators in sailing across the Adriatic sea since ancient times.[46]

Italy

The strawberry tree began to be considered one of the national symbols of Italy in the 19th century, during the Italian unification, because with its autumn colors is reminiscent of the flag of Italy (green for its leaves, white for its flowers and red for its berries).[47] [5]

For this reason the poet Giovanni Pascoli dedicated a poem to the strawberry tree. He refers to the Aeneid passage in which Pallas, killed by Turnus, was posed on branches of a strawberry tree. He saw in the colours of that plant a prefiguration of the flag of Italy and considered Pallas the first national cause martyr.[48] Pascoli's ode says:


Spain

The Garden of Earthly Delights, a painting by Hieronymus Bosch, was originally listed by José de Sigüenza, in the inventory of the Spanish Crown as La Pintura del Madroño – "The Painting of the Strawberry Tree".[49]

The tree makes up part of the Coat of arms of Madrid (El oso y el madroño, The Bear and the Strawberry Tree) of the city of Madrid, Spain. In the center of the city (Puerta del Sol) there is a statue of a bear eating the fruit of the Madroño tree. The image appears on city crests, taxi cabs, man-hole covers, and other city infrastructure. The fruit of the Madroño tree ferments on the tree if left to ripen, so some of the bears become drunk from eating the fruits.

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Fruits & Vegetables: Strawberry Tree Fruit. Atlas Obscura. Rydelek. Jared . 2014. 23 July 2021.
  2. Web site: Arbutus unedo strawberry tree. 23 July 2021. RHS Gardening. The Royal Horticultural Society.
  3. Web site: Arbutus unedo. 23 July 2021. Plant Finder. Missouri Botanical Garden.
  4. Web site: cane apple. Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
  5. Web site: Il corbezzolo simbolo dell'Unità d'Italia. Una specie che resiste agli incendi. https://web.archive.org/web/20130424020359/http://www.altovastese.it/cultura/il-corbezzolo-simbolo-unita-italia-specie-che-resiste-agli-incendi/ . live. 24 April 2013. 3 October 2011. it . 25 January 2016. Altovastese.
  6. Book: Linnaeus, Carl . Carl Linnaeus. Species Plantarum. Laurentii Salvii. Holmiae (Stockholm), Sweden . 1753. Tomus I . 395. caule erecto, foliis glabris serratis, baccis polyspermis. la.
  7. Hileman, Lena C. . Vasey, Michael C. . Parker, V. Thomas . 2001. Phylogeny and Biogeography of the Arbutoideae (Ericaceae): Implications for the Madrean-Tethyan Hypothesis. Systematic Botany. 26. 1. 131–143 . 2666660 . 10.1043/0363-6445-26.1.131. 31 January 2024 . 44225779 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200714220531/http://userwww.sfsu.edu/parker/pages/respubs/HilemanEtAl2001.pdf . 14 July 2020 .
  8. Bertsouklis. Konstantinos Fotios. Papafotiou. Maria. 2016-12-14. Morphometric and Molecular Analysis of the Three Arbutus Species of Greece. Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca. 44. 2. 423–430. 10.15835/nbha44210572. 1842-4309. free.
  9. Web site: A. unedo . . 27 November 2021.
  10. Molina. M.. Pardo-De-Santayana. M.. Aceituno. L. . Morales . R.. Tardio. J.. Fruit production of strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo L.) in two Spanish forests. Forestry. 1 October 2011. 84 . 4. 419–429. 10.1093/forestry/cpr031. 0015-752X. Many frugivorous birds and several mammals feed on its fleshy fruits. free.
  11. Naturalis Historia. Naturalis_Historia/Liber_XV#XXVIII.
    Natural History . Natural History (Rackham, Jones, & Eichholz)/Book 15. Pliny The Elder . Pliny the Elder . XV. XXVIII, 99 .
  12. Web site: Strawberry Tree Curse . Eat The Weeds and other things, too. 31 August 2011.
  13. Is the Strawberry Tree, Arbutus unedo (Ericaceae), native to Ireland, or was it brought by the first copper miners?. Micheline Sheehy. Skeffington. Nick. Scott. 30 December 2021. British & Irish Botany. 3. 4. britishandirishbotany.org. 10.33928/bib.2021.03.385.
  14. Web site: Richins Myers. Vanessa. Strawberry tree-Arbutus unedo. The Spruce. 17 September 2017. As long as you have made sure that it has regular watering for the first year so that the tree can form a strong root, it will be drought resistant. It can also grow in salty areas..
  15. Molina. María. Pardo-De-Santayana. Manuel. Aceituno. Laura. Morales. Ramón. Tardío. Javier. Fruit production of strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo L.) in two Spanish forests. Forestry. 1 October 2011. 84. 4. 419–429. 10.1093/forestry/cpr031. 0015-752X. The number of fruits per branch appeared to be affected by frost risk at flowering time. [...] The number of fruits per branch appeared to be affected by frost risk at flowering time. . free.
  16. Web site: Arbutus unedo - L.. Plants For a Future. 17 September 2017.
  17. Molina. María. Pardo-De-Santayana. Manuel. Aceituno. Laura. Morales. Ramón. Tardío. Javier. Fruit production of strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo L.) in two Spanish forests. Forestry. 1 October 2011. 84. 4. 419–429, tables 1–4. 10.1093/forestry/cpr031. 0015-752X. free.
  18. Celikel. Gulay. Demirsoy. Leyla. Demirsoy. Husnu. The strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo L.) selection in Turkey. Scientia Horticulturae. 16 September 2008. 118. 2. 115–119. 10.1016/j.scienta.2008.05.028.
  19. Navarro. A.. Sánchez-Blanco. M. J.. Morte. A.. Bañón. S.. The influence of mycorrhizal inoculation and paclobutrazol on water and nutritional status of Arbutus unedo L.. Environmental and Experimental Botany. 1 September 2009. 66. 3. 362–371. 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2009.04.005.
  20. Navarro García. Alejandra. Del Pilar Bañón Árias. Sebastián. Morte. Asunción. Sánchez-Blanco. María Jesús. Effects of nursery preconditioning through mycorrhizal inoculation and drought in Arbutus unedo L. plants. Mycorrhiza. 2010. 21. 1. 53–64. 10.1007/s00572-010-0310-x. 20405149. 20470083. 1432-1890.
  21. Web site: Arbutus unedo f. rubra. Royal Horticultural Society. 13 January 2018.
  22. Web site: RHS Plantfinder - Arbutus unedo 'Atlantic'. Royal Horticultural Society . 12 January 2018.
  23. Bertsouklis. Konstantinos F.. Papafotiou. Maria. 2013-03-01. Seed Germination of Arbutus unedo, A. andrachne and Their Natural Hybrid A. andrachnoides in Relation to Temperature and Period of Storage. HortScience. 48. 3. 347–351. 10.21273/HORTSCI.48.3.347. 0018-5345. free.
  24. Pipinis . Elias . Effects of Cold Stratification and Ga3 on Germination Ofarbutus Unedoseeds of Three Provenances . Stampoulidis . Athanasios . Milios. Elias . Kitikidou. Kyriaki . Radoglou. Kalliopi. African Journal of Traditional, Complementary and Alternative Medicines . 2017 . 14 . 1. 318–323. 10.21010/ajtcam.v14i1.34. 28480410 . 2505-0044. in all three provenances seed germinability was significantly improved by a one-month period of CS or treatment . 5411884.
  25. Hammami. I.. Jellal. M.. Ksontini. M.. Rejeb. M.N.. Propagation of the Strawberry Tree Through Seed (Arbutus unedo). International Journal of Agriculture & Biology. 2005. 7. 457–459. 17 September 2017. In the case of A. unedo, most prior studies found very low germination percentages, varying between 0 and 5 % (Smiris et al. 2006: 0 %; Demirsoy et al. 2010:1–3 %; Tilki 2004: 4 %; Ertekın and Kırdar 2010: 5 %). Hammami et al. (2005), however, obtained a considerably better result (19 %)..
  26. Web site: Arbutus unedo, The Strawberry Tree. Plants For a Future.
  27. Bertsouklis. Konstantinos F.. Daskalakis. Ioannis. Biniari. Katerina. Papafotiou. Maria. 2021-02-15. Comparative study of polyphenolic content and antioxidant capacity in fruits of Arbutus unedo, A. andrachne and their natural hybrid A.× andrachnoides. Notulae Botanicae Horti Agrobotanici Cluj-Napoca. 49. 1. 12165. 10.15835/nbha49112165. 233932055. 1842-4309. free.
  28. Alarcão-E-Silva. M. L. C. M. M.. Leitão. A. E. B.. Azinheira. H. G.. Leitão. M. C. A.. The Arbutus Berry: Studies on its Color and Chemical Characteristics at Two Mature Stages. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis. 1 February 2001. 14. 1. 27–35 . 10.1006/jfca.2000.0962. Arbutus berry appears to be a good source of vitamins, namely niacin, ascorbic acid and β -carotene (content of 9.1, 346.3 and 70.9 mg/100 g, respectively), organic acids (nearly 9%), total sugars (c. 42%) and tannins (1.75 mg g−1)..
  29. Barros. Lillian. Carvalho. Ana Maria. Morais. Jorge Sá. Ferreira. Isabel C. F. R.. Strawberry-tree, blackthorn and rose fruits: Detailed characterisation in nutrients and phytochemicals with antioxidant properties. Food Chemistry. 1 May 2010. 120. 1. 247–254. 10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.10.016. The analysed fruits contain very useful bioactive phytochemicals such as phenolics, vitamins (ascorbic acid and tocopherols) and carotenoids [..] The combination of bioactive compounds and rich nutritional composition (high contents in carbohydrates, low contents in fat with the precious contribution of polyunsaturated fatty acids, precursors of omega-3 and omega-6 fatty acids) of the studied wild fruits make them a very special food..
  30. Bonet. M. Angels. Vallès. Joan. Use of non-crop food vascular plants in Montseny biosphere reserve (Catalonia, Iberian Peninsula). International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition. 2002. 53 . 3 . 225–248. 0963-7486. 11951586. 10.1080/09637480220132841. 30114836.
  31. Floral markers of strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo L.) honey. 19919097 . 10.1021/jf9024147 . 58 . 1 . J Agric Food Chem . 384–9 . Tuberoso . CI . Bifulco . E . Caboni . P . Cottiglia . F . Cabras . P . Floris . I. 2010 .
  32. Mariotto. S.. Ciampa. A. R.. de Prati. A. Carcereri. Darra. E.. Vincenzi. S. . Sega. M. . Cavalieri. E.. Shoji. K.. Suzuki. H.. Aqueous extract of Arbutus unedo inhibits STAT1 activation in human breast cancer cell line MDA-MB-231 and human fibroblasts through SHP2 activation. Medicinal Chemistry. 2008. 4. 3. 219–228. 18473914. 1573-4064 . 10.2174/157340608784325179.
  33. https://web.archive.org/web/20080923212629/http://www.ars-grin.gov/cgi-bin/duke/ethnobot.pl?Arbutus%20unedo Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases: Ethnobotanical uses of Arbutus unedo
  34. Ioannis Erkekoglou. Nikolaos Nenadis. Efrosini Samara. Fani Th. Mantzouridou. Functional Teas from the Leaves of Arbutus unedo: Phenolic Content, Antioxidant Activity, and Detection of Efficient Radical Scavengers. Plant Foods for Human Nutrition. June 2017. 72. 2. 176–183. 28421300. 10.1007/s11130-017-0607-4. 403426.
  35. Mendes. Lídia. de Freitas. Victor. Baptista. Paula. Carvalho. Márcia. Comparative antihemolytic and radical scavenging activities of strawberry tree (Arbutus unedo L.) leaf and fruit. Food and Chemical Toxicology . 2011. 49. 9. 2285–2291. 10.1016/j.fct.2011.06.028. 21703325. 1873-6351.
  36. Koch, H . Welcome, V. Kendal-Smith, A . Thursfield, L . Farrell, IW . Langat, MK . Brown, MJF . Stevenson, PC . Host and gut microbiome modulate the antiparasitic activity of nectar metabolites in a bumblebee pollinator . Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B . 2022 . 377 . 1853 . 20210164 . 10.1098/rstb.2021.0162. 35491601 . 9058528 .
  37. Book: Maria Filomena Figueiredo Nazaré Gomes. Strategies for the improvement of Arbutus unedo L. (strawberry tree): in vitro propagation, mycorrhization and diversity analysis. 2011. Departamento de Ciências da Vida Universidade de Coimbra. July 30, 2020. A. unedo may contribute to the discontinuity of the forest biomass due to monocultures of pines and eucalyptus, particularly in the centre and north regions of Portugal, a situation responsible for the high number of fires and high fire intensity that all summers occur in these areas of the country.
  38. Book: Maria Filomena Figueiredo Nazaré Gomes. Strategies for the improvement of Arbutus unedo L. (strawberry tree): in vitro propagation, mycorrhization and diversity analysis. 2011. Departamento de Ciências da Vida Universidade de Coimbra. July 30, 2020. The species is drought tolerant and able to regenerate following forestry fires making it quite interesting for forestation programs in Mediterranean regions..
  39. Book: Maria Filomena Figueiredo Nazaré Gomes. Strategies for the improvement of Arbutus unedo L. (strawberry tree): in vitro propagation, mycorrhization and diversity analysis. 2011. Departamento de Ciências da Vida Universidade de Coimbra. 19 September 2017. [A. unedo] contributes to maintain biodiversity, helps to stabilize soils and survives well in marginal lands.
  40. Quoted in Alice M. Coats, Garden Shrubs and Their Histories (1964) 1992, s.v. "Arbutus".
  41. Ann Leighton, American Gardens in the Eighteenth Century: 'For Use or Delight' , 1976:395.
  42. Web site: RHS Plant Selector - Arbutus unedo f. rubra. 30 May 2013.
  43. Web site: RHS Plant Selector - Arbutus x andrachnoides. 30 May 2013.
  44. Book: The Metamorphoses . Book I . Ovid . A. S. Kline. Poetry in Translation. 7 December 2022.
  45. S. Pignatti, Flora d'Italia, volume II, p. 261, Edagricole, 1982.
  46. Braccesi L., & Luni M. (Eds.). I greci in Adriatico, 2 (Hesperìa, Vol. 18). L'Erma Di Bretschneider, 2004, p.54 .
  47. various authors - Guida pratica agli alberi e arbusti in Italia; Biblioteca per chi ama la natura - Selezione dal Reader's Digest Milano 1983, 1991.
  48. Giovanni Pascoli, in the autograph note to his poem "Il corbezzolo" ("The strawberry tree"), compared the virgilian, deposed after death on branches of a strawberry tree, to the Italian martyrs wrapped up, during the burial ceremonies, in the Italian flag.
  49. Warner, Marion. Fantastic metamorphoses, other worlds: ways of telling the self. Oxford University Press, 2002. 70.

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