Research stations in Antarctica explained

Multiple governments have set up permanent research stations in Antarctica and these bases are widely distributed. Unlike the drifting ice stations set up in the Arctic, the current research stations of the Antarctic are constructed either on rocks or on ice that are (for practical purposes) fixed in place.

Many of these stations are staffed throughout the year. Of the 56 signatories to the Antarctic Treaty, a total of 55 countries (as of 2023)^[1] operate seasonal (summer) and year-round research stations on the continent. The number of people performing and supporting scientific research on the continent and nearby islands varies from approximately 4,800 during the summer to around 1,200 during the winter (June).^[2] In addition to these permanent stations, approximately 30 field camps are established each summer to support specific projects.^[3]

History

First bases

During the Heroic Age of Antarctic Exploration in the late 19th century, the first bases on the continent were established. In 1898, Carsten Borchgrevink, a Norwegian/British explorer, led the British Antarctic Expedition to Cape Adare, where he established the first Antarctic base on Ridley Beach. This expedition is often referred to now as the Southern Cross Expedition, after the expedition's ship name. Most of the staff were Norwegian, but the funds for the expedition were British, provided by Sir George Newnes. The 10 members of this expedition explored Robertson Bay to the west of Cape Adare by dog teams, and later, after being picked up by the ship at the base, went ashore on the Ross Ice Shelf for brief journeys. The expedition hut is still in good condition and is visited frequently by tourists.

The hut was later occupied by Scott's Northern Party under the command of Victor Campbell for a year in 1911, after its attempt to explore the eastern end of the ice shelf discovered Roald Amundsen already ashore preparing for his assault on the South Pole.

In 1903, Dr William S. Bruce's Scottish National Antarctic Expedition set off to Antarctica, with one of its aims to establish a meteorological station in the area. After the expedition failed to find land, Bruce decided to head back to Laurie Island in the South Orkneys and find an anchorage there.^[4] The islands were well-situated as a site for a meteorological station, and their relative proximity to the South American mainland allowed a permanent station to be established. Bruce instituted a comprehensive program of work, involving meteorological readings, trawling for marine samples, botanical excursions, and the collection of biological and geological specimens.

The major task completed during this time was the construction of a stone building, christened "Omond House".^[5] This was to act as living accommodation for the parties that would remain on Laurie Island to operate the proposed meteorological laboratory. The building was constructed from local materials using the dry stone method, with a roof improvised from wood and canvas sheeting. The completed house was 20 feet by 20 feet square (6m × 6m), with two windows, fitted as quarters for six people. Rudmose Brown wrote: "Considering that we had no mortar and no masons' tools it is a wonderfully fine house and very lasting. I should think it will be standing a century hence ..."^[6]

Bruce later offered to transfer the station and instruments to Argentina on the condition that the government committed itself to the continuation of the scientific mission.^[7] Bruce informed the British officer William Haggard of his intentions in December 1903, and Haggard ratified the terms of Bruce's proposition.^[8]

The Scotia sailed back for Laurie Island on 14 January 1904, transporting Argentinean officials from the Ministry of Agriculture, National Meteorological Office, Ministry of Livestock and National Postal and Telegraphs Office. In 1906, Argentina communicated to the international community the establishment of a permanent base on the South Orkney Islands.

Expansion

Little happened for the following forty years.

The United States starting under the leadership of Admiral Richard E. Byrd constructed a series of five bases near the Bay of Whales named Little America between 1929 and 1958. All of them have now drifted off to sea on icebergs.

Before the start of the Second World War, German aircraft had dropped markers with swastikas across Queen Maud Land in an attempt to create a territorial claim (New Swabia).^[9]

In 1943 the British launched Operation Tabarin, to establish a presence on the continent. The chief reason was to establish solid British claims to various uninhabited islands and parts of Antarctica, reinforced by Argentine sympathies toward Germany.

Led by Lieutenant James Marr, the 14-strong team left the Falkland Islands in two ships, HMS William Scoresby (a minesweeping trawler) and HMS Fitzroy, on Saturday, January 29, 1944. Marr had accompanied the British explorer Sir Ernest Shackleton on his final Antarctic expedition in 1921–22. Bases were established during February near the abandoned Norwegian whaling station on Deception Island, where the Union Flag was hoisted in place of Argentine flags, and at Port Lockroy (on February 11) on the coast of Graham Land. A further base was founded at Hope Bay on February 13, 1945, after a failed attempt to unload stores on February 7, 1944. These were the first permanent bases to be constructed on the Antarctic mainland.^[10]

A massive expansion in international activity followed the war. Chile organized its First Chilean Antarctic Expedition in 1947–48. Among other accomplishments, it brought the Chilean president Gabriel González Videla to personally inaugurate one of its bases, thereby becoming the first head of state to set foot on the continent.^[11] Signy Research Station (UK) was established in 1947, Australia's Mawson Station in 1954, Dumont d'Urville Station was the first French station in 1956. In that same year, the United States built McMurdo Station and Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, and the Soviet Union built Mirny Station.

The Antarctic Treaty

See main article: Antarctic Treaty System. The Antarctic Treaty, first signed on 1 December 1959 by 12 countries, stated that scientific investigations in research stations in Antarctica can continue, but all observations must be shared.^[12] The Antarctic Treaty also stated that Antarctica can only be used for peaceful purposes and any exploitation of the continent such as mining is forbidden, thus scientific research is the only activity that may be performed on Antarctica.^[13] As more countries established research stations on Antarctica, the number of signatories of the treaty increased, with 56 signatories as of 2023, 55 of whom utilize their rights and operate research stations in Antarctica. 7 of the signatories also laid claims on Antarctica (and 4 reserved their rights to do so), with the intention of expanding research in those territories in the future. However, research facilities have also been established by countries in the claimed area of other countries.

Permanent active stations

The United States maintains the southernmost base, Amundsen–Scott South Pole Station, and the largest base and research station in Antarctica, McMurdo Station. The second-southernmost base is the Chinese Kunlun Station at 80°25′2″S during the summer season, and the Russian Vostok Station at 78°27′50″S during the winter season.

width=200 px	Name	width=200 px	Location	width=120 px	Country	width=250 px	Administration	Year	Max.	Summer	Winter pop.	UTC offset	Mean annual (°C)
Amundsen–Scott South Pole	Geographical South Pole		United States Antarctic Program	1957	153	150	49	+12	−49.5
Arctowski	King George Island		Polish Academy of Sciences	1977	40	40	16	−3	−1.6
Arrival Heights Laboratory^[14]	Ross Island		Antarctica New Zealand	1959				+12	−19.7
Artigas	King George Island		Uruguayan Antarctic Institute	1984	60	9	8	−3	−0.9
Arturo Prat	Greenwich Island		Chilean Navy	1947	30	30	8	−3	−2.0
Belgrano II	Coats Land		Instituto Antartico Argentino	1979	20	24	19	−3	−13.3
Bellingshausen	King George Island		Russian Antarctic Expedition	1968	40	40	20	−3	−2.3
Bharati	Larsemann Hills		National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research	2012	47	46	23	+5:30	−10.2
Carlini	King George Island		Instituto Antartico Argentino	1953	80	80	29	−3	−1.6
Casey	Vincennes Bay		Australian Antarctic Division	1957	99	99	21	+8	−5.9
Comandante Ferraz	King George Island		Brazilian Antarctic Program	1984	64	35	15	−3	−1.8
Concordia	Dome C, Antarctic Plateau		National Antarctic Research Program, IPEV	2005	80	70	13	+8	−51.7
Davis	Princess Elizabeth Land		Australian Antarctic Division	1957	91	91	17	+7	−7.3
Dumont d'Urville	Adélie Land		IPEV	1956	90	90	24	+10	−11.1
Eco-Nelson	Nelson Island		Czech Antarctic Foundation	1988	8	5	5	−3	−2.3
Eduardo Frei and Villa Las Estrellas	King George Island		Chilean Air Force	1969	150	150	80	−3	−2.3
Escudero	King George Island		Instituto Antártico Chileno	1995	90	60	2	−3	−2.3
Esperanza	Hope Bay		Instituto Antartico Argentino	1953	90	116	56	−3	−4.6
GARS	Cape Legoupil		German Aerospace Center	1991	10				−3.9
General Bernardo O'Higgins	Cape Legoupil		Chilean Army	1948	60	52	24	−3	−3.9
Great Wall	King George Island		Polar Research Institute of China	1985	60	60	13	−3	−2.5
Halley	Brunt Ice Shelf		British Antarctic Survey^[15]	2013	52	70	17	−3	−18.5
Jang Bogo	Terra Nova Bay		Korea Polar Research Institute	2014	62	62	23	+11	−15.1
King Sejong	King George Island		Korea Polar Research Institute	1988	68	68	22	−3	−1.8
Maitri	Schirmacher Oasis		National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research	1989	65	45	25	+5:30	−9.7
Marambio	Marambio Island		Instituto Antartico Argentino	1969	165	165	70	−3	−8.1
Mawson	Mac Robertson Land		Australian Antarctic Division	1954	53	53	15	+6	−8.3
McMurdo	Ross Island		United States Antarctic Program	1956	1200	1000	153	+12	−17.3
Mirny	Davis Sea		Russian Antarctic Expedition	1956	50	50	25	+6	−11.3
Neumayer III	Atka Bay		Alfred Wegener Institute	2009	60	60	9	0	−16.0
Novolazarevskaya	Queen Maud Land		Russian Antarctic Expedition	1961	70	70	40	0	−10.3
Orcadas	Laurie Island, South Orkney Islands		Instituto Antartico Argentino, Argentine Navy	1903	65	35	17	−3	−3.0
Palmer	Anvers Island		United States Antarctic Program	1968	46	44	13	−3	−1.8
Progress	Prydz Bay		Russian Antarctic Expedition	1988	50	50	25	−5	−9.4
Qinling^[16]	Inexpressible Island, Terra Nova Bay		Polar Research Institute of China	2024	80	80	30^[17]	+12
Rothera^[18]	Adelaide Island		British Antarctic Survey	1975	136	160	27	−3	−5.3
San Martín	Barry Island		Instituto Antartico Argentino	1951	21	19	21	−3	−4.6
SANAE IV	Vesleskarvet, Queen Maud Land		South African National Antarctic Programme	1997	80	110	15	+2	−16.5
Scott Base	Ross Island		Antarctica New Zealand	1957	86	78	11	+12	−19.6
Showa	East Ongul Island		National Institute of Polar Research	1957	130	170	40	+3	−10.5
Troll	Queen Maud Land		Norwegian Polar Institute	1990	70	45	7	0	−18.0
Vernadsky	Galindez Island		National Antarctic Scientific Center of Ukraine	1994	24	30	12	−3	−3.3
Vostok	Antarctic Ice Sheet		Russian Antarctic Expedition	1957	30	30	15	+6	−55.2
Zhongshan	Larsemann Hills, Prydz Bay		Polar Research Institute of China	1989	60	60	17	+7	−11.2

Subantarctic stations

See also: Subantarctic and List of Antarctic and subantarctic islands.

Name	Location	Country	Administration	data-sort-type="number"	Year	data-sort-type="number"	Summer	data-sort-type="number"	Winter pop.	data-sort-type="number"	UTC offset	data-sort-type="number"	Mean annual (°C)
Alfred Faure	Île de la Possession		French Polar Institute	1963	45	24	+5	5.3
Bird^[19]	Bird Island		British Antarctic Survey	1957	10	4	−2	−0.2
Campbell	Campbell Island		MetService	1946	0	0	+12	7.0
Gough	Gough Island		South African Weather Service	1956	10	10	0	11.5
King Edward Point^[20]	King Edward Point		British Antarctic Survey	1950	22	12	−2	1.6
Macquarie	Macquarie Island		Australian Antarctic Division	1948	40	16	+10	4.9
Marion	Prince Edward Islands		South African National Antarctic Programme	1948	18	18	+3	5.5
Norvegia	Bouvet Island		Norwegian Polar Institute	1927	6	0		-1
Port-aux-Français	Kerguelen Islands		French Polar Institute	1963	120	45	+5	5.2

Summer-only active stations

width=200 px	Name	width=200 px	Location	width=230 px	Country	width=200 px		Year	Max.	Summer	UTC offset	Mean annual (°C)
Aboa	Queen Maud Land		Finnish Antarctic Research Program	1988	17	13		−15.3
Brown	Paradise Harbor		Instituto Antártico Argentino	1951	12	12	−3	−2.4
Cámara	Half Moon Island		Instituto Antartico Argentino	1953	22	20	−3	−2.4
Carvajal	Adelaide Island		Instituto Antártico Chileno	1984	46	46		−9.8
Collins	Fildes Peninsula		Instituto Antártico Chileno	2006		6
Dallmann	Carlini Station		Alfred Wegener Institute	1994	16	16		−2.4
Deception	Deception Island		Instituto Antartico Argentino	1948	36	18	−3	−3.0
Dirck Gerritsz Laboratory	Rothera Station		British Antarctic Survey, Netherlands Polar Programme	2013	10	10		−5.0
Dobrowolski	Bunger Hills, Wilkes Land		Polish Academy of Sciences	1956	10	10		−9.1
Elichiribehety	Hope Bay		Uruguayan Antarctic Institute	1945	8	7		−4.8
Gabriel de Castilla	Deception Island		Spanish National Research Council	1989	36	33		−0.7
Gondwana	Transantarctic Mountains		Alfred Wegener Institute	1983
González Videla	Waterboat Point, Graham Land		Chilean Air Force	1951	15	15		−6.7
Guillermo Mann	Cape Shirreff		Instituto Antártico Chileno	1991	8	8		0.4
Jinnah	Sør Rondane Mountains, Queen Maud Land		Pakistan Antarctic Programme	1991
Juan Carlos I	South Bay, Livingston Island		Spanish National Research Council	1988	50	27	−3	−1.2
Julio Ripamonti	Ardley Island		Instituto Antártico Chileno	1982		4	-3
Kohnen	Queen Maud Land		Alfred Wegener Institute	2001	28	6		−42.2
Kunlun	Dome A		Polar Research Institute of China	2009	26	26		−51.4
Law-Racoviță-Negoiță	Larsemann Hills, Princess Elizabeth Land		Romanian Polar Research Institute	1986		13
Lenie	Admiralty Bay		United States Antarctic Program	1985		2
Machu Picchu	Admiralty Bay, King George Island		Instituto Antártico Peruano^[21]	1989	30	30		−2.1
Maldonado	Greenwich Island		Instituto Antártico Ecuatoriano	1990	34	32
Matienzo	Graham Land		Instituto Antartico Argentino	1961	12	12	−3	−5.0
Melchior	Melchior Islands		Instituto Antartico Argentino	1947	15	12	−3	−2.9
Mendel	James Ross Island		Masaryk University	2007	20	20		−6.8
Molodyozhnaya	Thala Hills, East Antarctica		Russian Antarctic Expedition	1962	15	15		−11.0
Petrel	Dundee Island		Instituto Antartico Argentino	1967	45	25	−3	−7.1
Port Lockroy^[22] ^[23]	Goudier Island		United Kingdom Antarctic Heritage Trust	1944		4
Primavera	Graham Land		Instituto Antartico Argentino	1977	18	18	−3	−3.0
Princess Elisabeth	Queen Maud Land		International Polar Foundation	2007	40	22		−18.0
Risopatrón	Robert Island		Instituto Antártico Chileno	1949		6		−2.3
Shirreff	Cape Shirreff		National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration	1996		6
Signy^[24]	Signy Island, South Orkney Islands		British Antarctic Survey	1947	8	14		−2.1
Sobral	Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf		Instituto Antártico Argentino	1965	7	6	−3
St. Kliment Ohridski	Emona Anchorage, Livingston Island		Bulgarian Antarctic Institute	1988	22	22	−3	−1.0
Svea	Queen Maud Land		Swedish Polar Research Secretariat	1988		5
Taishan^[25]	Princess Elizabeth Land		Polar Research Institute of China	2014	20	20		−30.3
TARS	Horseshoe Island		Turkish Polar Research Program	2019	50	26
Tor	Queen Maud Land		Norwegian Polar Institute	1993		7
Union Glacier	Union Glacier		Chilean Army, Chilean Navy, Chilean Air Force, Instituto Antártico Chileno	2014		70	−3
Vechernyaya^[26]	Mount Vechernyaya, Thala Hills		National Academy of Sciences of Belarus	2007	12	11
Wasa	Queen Maud Land		Swedish Polar Research Secretariat	1989	20	13		−15.3
Yelcho	South Bay, Doumer Island		Instituto Antártico Chileno	1962	28	28		2.0
Zucchelli	Terra Nova Bay		National Antarctic Research Program, ENEA, CNR	1986	120	120	+12^[27]	−14.0

Inactive stations

width=120 px	Name	width=170 px	Location	width=120 px	Country	width=250 px		Year	Type	UTC offset	Mean annual (°C)	Year closed	width=220 px	Status
Aguirre Cerda	Deception Island		Instituto Antártico Chileno	1955	Summer			1967	Destroyed
Arturo Parodi	Ellsworth Land		Instituto Antártico Chileno	1999	Summer			2014	Dismantled
Asuka	Queen Maud Land		National Institute of Polar Research	1985	Summer			1992	Closed, under snow
Belgrano I	Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf		Instituto Antártico Argentino	1955	Permanent	−3		1980	Abandoned, lost
Belgrano III	Berkner Island		Instituto Antártico Argentino	1980	Permanent	−3		1984	Abandoned
Borga	Borg Massif		South African National Antarctic Programme	1969	Summer			1976	Closed
Brockton	Ross Ice Shelf		United States Navy	1965	Summer			1972	Abandoned
Byrd	Marie Byrd Land		United States Antarctic Program	1957	Summer		−28.1	2005	Abandoned
Charcot^[28]	Adélie Land		French Polar Institute	1957	Permanent			1959	Closed, abandoned
Dakshin Gangotri	Dakshin Gangotri Glacier		National Centre for Polar and Ocean Research	1984	Permanent			1990	Closed, support base
Dome Fuji	Queen Maud Land		National Institute of Polar Research	1995	Summer		−54.3	2019	Closed
Drescher	Queen Maud Land		Alfred Wegener Institute	1986	Summer			2016	Closed
	Zavadovskiy Island		Soviet Antarctic Expedition	1960	Winter			1960	Closed
	Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf		Soviet Antarctic Expedition	1975	Summer			1986	Closed, lost
	Lassiter Coast		Soviet Antarctic Expedition	1982	Summer			1986	Closed
Druzhnaya III	Queen Maud Land		Soviet Antarctic Expedition	1982	Summer			1991	Closed
	Princess Elizabeth Land		Russian Antarctic Expedition	1987	Summer			2013	Closed
East Base	Stonington Island		United States Antarctic Service Expedition	1941	Permanent			1948	Closed
Eights	Ellsworth Land^[29]		National Science Foundation	1963	Permanent			1965	Closed
Ellsworth	Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf		United States Navy, Instituto Antártico Argentino	1957	Permanent		−22	1962	Closed, lost
Faraday^[30]	Galindez Island		British Antarctic Survey	1947	Permanent		−3.3	1996	Closed, became Vernadsky
Filchner	Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf		Alfred Wegener Institute	1982	Summer			1999	Abandoned, lost
	Filchner-Ronne Ice Shelf		Alfred Wegener Institute	1976	Permanent			1993	Dismantled
	Princess Martha Coast		Alfred Wegener Institute	1981	Permanent			1993	Closed, sunk in ice
Giacomo Bove^[31]	Italia Valley		Renato Cepparo Expedition	1976	Summer			1976	Closed, sabotaged
Hallett	Hallett Peninsula		International Geophysical Year	1956	Summer			1973	Dismantled
	Princess Ragnhild Coast		National Center for Polar Research	1958	Permanent			1967	Closed, abandoned
Komsomolskaya	Queen Mary Land		Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute	1957	Permanent		−52	1962	Abandoned
	Lazarev Ice Shelf		Soviet Antarctic Expedition	1959	Permanent			1961	Closed, abandoned
Leningradskaya	Oates Coast, Victoria Land		Russian Antarctic Expedition	1971	Summer		−14.2	2008	Closed
Little America	Ross Ice Shelf		United States Navy	1929	Permanent		−22	1987	Lost
Little Rockford	Marie Byrd Land		United States Navy	1958	Summer			1965	Closed, abandoned
	Queen Maud Land		Norwegian–British–Swedish Antarctic Expedition	1950	Permanent			1952	Closed
	Drygalski Island		Soviet Antarctic Expedition	1960	Winter			1960	Closed
Mizuho	Mizuho Plateau		National Institute of Polar Research	1970	Summer			1987	Closed
Neumayer II	Queen Maud Land		Alfred Wegener Institute	1992	Permanent			2009	Dismantled
	Fimbul Ice Shelf		Sixth Norwegian Antarctic Expedition	1957	Permanent			1960	Closed
	Bunger Hills		Russian Antarctic Expedition	1987	Summer			1995	Closed
	Queen Mary Land		Soviet Antarctic Expedition	1956	Permanent		−38	1959	Closed
Plateau	Queen Maud Land		United States Navy, National Science Foundation	1965	Permanent		−56.7	1969	Closed
	Queen Mary Land		Soviet Antarctic Expedition	1960	Summer			1960	Abandoned, lost
Pole of Inaccessibility	Kemp Land		Soviet Antarctic Expedition	1958	Summer		−58.2	1958	Closed
Port Martin	Cape Margerie		French Antarctic Expedition	1950	Permanent			1952	Partly destroyed in a fire, closed
Russkaya	Marie Byrd Land		Russian Antarctic Expedition	1980	Summer	−6	−12.4	1990	Closed
SANAE I	Fimbul Ice Shelf		South African National Antarctic Programme	1960	Permanent			1963	Closed, abandoned
SANAE II	Fimbul Ice Shelf		South African National Antarctic Programme	1971	Permanent			1979	Closed, abandoned
SANAE III	Fimbul Ice Shelf		South African National Antarctic Programme	1979	Permanent			1997	Closed, abandoned
Sarie Marais	Ahlmann Ridge		South African National Antarctic Programme	1982	Summer			2001	Closed, decommissioned
Siple	Ellsworth Land		Stanford University's STAR Lab	1973	Summer			1988	Closed
	Amery Ice Shelf		Soviet Antarctic Expedition	1971	Summer			1974	Closed
Sovetskaya	Kaiser Wilhelm II Land		Arctic and Antarctic Research Institute	1958	Permanent			1959	Closed, abandoned
Soyuz	Prince Charles Mountains		Soviet Antarctic Expedition	1982	Permanent	+5		2007	Closed
Station B^[32]	Deception Island		Falkland Islands and Dependencies Aerial Survey Expedition	1944	Permanent			1969	Closed, abandoned
Station C^[33]	Cape Geddes		British Antarctic Survey	1946	Summer			1947	Closed, abandoned
Station D^[34]	Hope Bay		British Antarctic Survey	1945	Permanent			1964	Closed, became ECARE
Station E^[35]	Stonington Island		British Antarctic Survey	1946	Permanent			1975	Closed
Station G^[36]	Admiralty Bay		British Antarctic Survey	1947	Permanent			1961	Closed, demolished
Station J^[37]	Prospect Point		British Antarctic Survey	1957	Permanent			1959	Closed, removed
Station N^[38]	Anvers Island		British Antarctic Survey	1955	Permanent			1971	Destroyed in a fire, demolished
Station O^[39]	Danco Island		British Antarctic Survey	1956	Permanent			1959	Closed, demolished
Station T^[40]	Adelaide Island		British Antarctic Survey	1961	Permanent			1977	Closed, became Carvajal
Station V^[41]	View Point		British Antarctic Survey	1953	Permanent			1963	Closed, became Jorge Boonen
Station W^[42]	Detaille Island		British Antarctic Survey	1956	Permanent			1959	Closed
Station Y^[43]	Horseshoe Island		British Antarctic Survey	1955	Permanent			1960	Closed
Vanda	Victoria Land		Antarctica New Zealand	1969	Summer		−19.7	1995	Closed
	East Antarctica		Russian Academy of Sciences	1957	Permanent			1957	Closed, abandoned
	Weddell Sea		Russian Antarctic Expedition, National Science Foundation	1992	Summer			1992	Evacuated
World Park	Cape Evans		Greenpeace	1987	Permanent			1991	Dismantled

Impact and pollution

In 2023 a research report from an Australian team^[44] found that the pollution left by international research stations was comparable to that seen in some of the busiest ports in the world.

See also

• Antarctic field camps
• Demographics of Antarctica
• Territorial claims in Antarctica
• List of airports in Antarctica
• List of research stations in the Arctic (for analogous stations in the Arctic)
• List of Antarctic expeditions
• Transport in Antarctica
• Time in Antarctica
• Winter-over syndrome
• Human outpost

External links

• catalogue . Antarctic Station Catalogue . August 2017 . . 978-0-473-40409-3 . 16 January 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221022102847/https://static1.squarespace.com/static/61073506e9b0073c7eaaf464/t/611497cc1ece1b43f0eeca8a/1628739608968/COMNAP_Antarctic_Station_Catalogue.pdf . 22 October 2022 . live.
• Research stations
• COMNAP Antarctic Facilities, 2014, Excel file
• COMNAP Antarctic Facilities Map, 2009
• Antarctic Exploration Timeline, animated map of Antarctic exploration and settlement, showing where and when Antarctic research stations were established
• Antarctic Digital Database Map Viewer SCAR

Notes and References

1. Web site: 01. Antarctic Treaty, done at Washington December 1, 1959. . 2023-10-24 . United States Department of State . en.
2. Silja Vöneky . Sange Addison-Agyei . Silja Vöneky . Oxford Public International Law . Max Planck Encyclopedia of Public International Law . May 2011.
3. Web site: 4.0 Antarctica - Past and Present . 2018-04-06 . 2020-01-18 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200118043340/https://www.nsf.gov/pubs/1997/antpanel/4past.htm . live.
4. Book: Rudmose Brown . R. N. . Pirie . J. H. . Mossman . R. C. . The Voyage of the Scotia . Mercat Press . Edinburgh . 2002 . 1-84183-044-5 . 34–57.
5. Web site: Voyage of the Scotia 1902–04: The Antarctic . Glasgow Digital Library . 2008-06-30 . 2008-03-11 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080311105228/http://gdl.cdlr.strath.ac.uk/scotia/vsindexantarctic.html . live.
6. Book: Speak, Peter . 2003 . William Speirs Bruce: Polar Explorer and Scottish Nationalist . NMS Publishing . Edinburgh . 1-901663-71-X . 85.
7. Web site: Historia General de las Relaciones Exteriores de la Republica Argentina . July 6, 2012 . Escude, Carlos . Cisneros, Andres . es . https://web.archive.org/web/20120504063019/http://www.ucema.edu.ar/ceieg/arg-rree/7/7-107.htm . May 4, 2012 . dead.
8. Book: Cuatro Años en las Orcadas del Sur . Ediciones Peuser . Moneta, Jose Manuel . 9th . 1954.
9. Web site: HMS Carnarvon Castle 1943 . 2014-03-05 . 2015-07-06 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150706224429/http://www.spri.cam.ac.uk/library/pictures/catalogue/hmscc1943/ . live.
10. Web site: Spirit of Scott 2012: Britain's polar interests lie under a cloud . https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/antarctica/robert-falcon-scott/9706157/Spirit-of-Scott-2012-Britains-polar-interests-lie-under-a-cloud.html . 2022-01-12 . subscription . live . 27 November 2012 . The Daily Telegraph.
11. Antarctica and the Arctic: the complete encyclopedia, Volume 1, by David McGonigal, Lynn Woodworth, page 98
12. Web site: The Antarctic Treaty Antarctic Treaty . 2023-10-24 . www.ats.aq.
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14. Web site: New Zealand . Antarctic Treaty . 25 September 2017 . 5 March 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140305025850/http://eies.ats.aq/Ats.IE/ieGenRpt.aspx?idParty=27&period=3 . dead.
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