Anito Explained

Anito, also spelled anitu, refers to ancestor spirits, nature spirits, and deities in the Indigenous Philippine folk religions from the precolonial age to the present, although the term itself may have other meanings and associations depending on the Filipino ethnic group. It can also refer to carved humanoid figures, the taotao, made of wood, stone, or ivory, that represent these spirits. Anito (a term predominantly used in Luzon) is also sometimes known as diwata in certain ethnic groups (especially among Visayans).[1]

Pag-anito refers to a séance, often accompanied by other rituals or celebrations, in which a shaman (Visayan: babaylan, Tagalog: katalonan) acts as a medium to communicate directly with the spirits. When a nature spirit or deity is specifically involved, the ritual is called pagdiwata. The act of worship or a religious sacrifice to a spirit is also sometimes simply referred to as anito.[2] [3] [4]

The belief in anito are sometimes referred to as Anitism in scholarly literature (Spanish: anitismo or anitería).[5]

Spirits

Pre-colonial Filipinos were animistic. They believed that everything has a spirit, from rocks and trees to animals and humans to natural phenomena.[5] [6] [7] These spirits are collectively known as anito, derived from Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *qanitu and Proto-Austronesian *qaNiCu ("spirit of the dead"). Cognates in other Austronesian cultures include the Micronesian aniti, Malaysian and Indonesian hantu or antu, Nage nitu, and Polynesian atua and aitu. As well as Tao anito, Taivoan alid, Seediq and Atayal utux, Bunun hanitu or hanidu, and Tsou hicu among Taiwanese aborigines.[6] [8] [9] Anito can be divided into two main categories: the ancestor spirits (ninunò), and deities and nature spirits (diwata).[2] [5]

Ancestor spirits

The ninunò (lit. "ancestor") can be the spirits of actual ancestors, cultural heroes, or generalized guardian spirits of a family. Pre-colonial Filipinos believed that upon death, the "free" soul (Visayan: kalag; Tagalog: kaluluwa)[10] of a person travels to a spirit world, usually by voyaging across an ocean on a boat (a bangka or baloto).[2] [11] [12] [13] [14] [15]

There can be multiple locations in the spirit world, varying in different ethnic groups.[16] Which place souls end up in depends on how they died, the age at death, or the conduct of the person when they were alive. There was no concept of heaven or hell prior to the introduction of Christianity and Islam;[17] rather, the spirit world is usually depicted as an otherworld that exists alongside the material world. Souls reunite with deceased relatives in the spirit world and lead normal lives in the spirit world as they did in the material world. In some cases, the souls of evil people undergo penance and cleansing before they are granted entrance into a particular spirit realm. Souls would eventually reincarnate after a period of time in the spirit world.[2] [18] [5] [19]

In some cultures (like among the Kalinga people), the acceptance of a soul by ancestors into a certain realm in the spirit world requires tattoos (batok), by which they can gauge the worthiness of a soul. In other cultures, tattoos illuminate and guide the spirits during the journey to the afterlife.[20] [21] [22] [23]

Souls in the spirit world still retain a degree of influence in the material world, and vice versa. Pag-anito may be used to invoke good ancestor spirits for protection, intercession (kalara or kalda), or advice. Ancestor spirits that become intercessors with deities are known as pintakasi or pitulon. Vengeful spirits of the dead can manifest as apparitions or ghosts (mantiw)[24] and cause harm to living people. Pag-anito can be used to appease or banish them.[2] [5] [7] [25] Ancestor spirits also figured prominently during illness or death, as they were believed to be the ones who call the soul to the spirit world, guide the soul (a psychopomp), or meet the soul upon arrival.[2]

Ancestor spirits are also known as kalading among the Igorot;[26] tonong among the Maguindanao and Maranao;[27] umboh among the Sama-Bajau;[28] nunò or umalagad among Tagalogs and Visayans; nonò among Bicolanos; umagad or umayad among the Manobo; and tiladmanin among the Tagbanwa.[29]

Nature spirits and deities

See also: Deities of Philippine mythology and Philippine mythical creatures. Spirits that have never been human are differentiated in some ethnic groups as diwata. These spirits can range from simple spirits like the diwata of a particular inanimate object, plant, animal, or place,[30] to deities who personify abstract concepts and natural phenomena,[31] to deities who are part of an actual pantheon.[32] They are also known as dewatu, divata, duwata, ruwata, dewa, dwata, diya, etc., in various Philippine languages (including Tagalog diwa, "spirit" or "essence"); all of which are derived from Sanskrit devata (देवता) or devá (देव), meaning "deity". These names are the result of syncretization with Hindu-Buddhist beliefs due to the indirect cultural exchange (via Srivijaya and Majapahit) between the Philippines and South Asia.[2] [5]

However, what entities are considered diwata varies by ethnic group. In some ethnic groups like the B'laan, Cuyonon Visayans, and the Tagalog, Diwata refers to the supreme being in their pantheon,[33] in which case there are different terms for non-human spirits.[2] [5] [34] Like in ancestor spirits, diwata are referred to in polite kinship titles when addressed directly, like apo ("elder") or nuno ("grandparent").[5]

There are three general types of non-human spirits. The first are the environmental or nature spirits "bound" to a particular location or natural phenomenon (similar to genii loci). They "own" places and concepts like agricultural fields, forests, cliffs, seas, winds, lightning, or realms in the spirit world. Some were also "keepers" or totems of various animals and plants. They have inhuman and abstract qualities, reflecting their particular dominions. They do not normally appear in human form and are usually gender-less or androgynous. They rarely concern themselves with human affairs. Rituals involving these spirits are almost always conducted outdoors.[35]

The second type of spirits are the "unbound" spirits which have independent existence. They appear in animal (usually as birds) or human-like forms, have gender differentiation, and have personal names. They are most similar to the fairies of European folklore.[36] These are the most common types of spirits to become abyan (spirit guides of babaylan), as they are the most "sociable" and can take interest in human activities. These spirits are usually referred to as engkanto (from Spanish encanto) in modern Filipino folklore. Unlike the "bound" spirits, these spirits can be invited into human households, and their rituals can take place both outdoors and indoors.The last is a class of malevolent spirits or demons, as well as supernatural beings, generally collectively known as aswang, yawa, or mangalos (also mangalok, mangangalek, or magalos) among Tagalogs and Visayans. There are numerous kinds of aswang with specific abilities, behavior, or appearance. Examples include sigbin, wakwak, tiyanak, and manananggal. The first two categories of diwata can also be malevolent, what sets the third category apart is that they can not be appealed to with offerings and they are utterly pitiless. Most practices associated with them is to ward them off, banish them, or destroy them. They are never addressed nor worshiped in religious rituals.[2] [5]

Diwata are rarely spoken about openly for fear of attracting their attention. Instead they are referred to with euphemisms like "those unlike us" (Visayan: dili ingon nato) or various names, like banwaanon or taga-banwa,[37] that translate literally to "dweller of a place".[38] [39] [40] Among Tagalogs, non-human nature spirits are also euphemistically referred to as lamanglupa ("[dwellers of] the bowels of the earth") or lamangdagat ("[dwellers of] the depths of the sea"), depending on their domain.

Diwata exist in both the material world and the spirit world. They can be formless or have a material body. They can also take over a body through spirit possession (Visayan: hola, hulak, tagdug, or saob; Tagalog: sanib), an ability essential for the séances in pag-anito. They are believed to be capable of shapeshifting (baliw or baylo), becoming invisible, or creating visions or illusions (anino or landung, lit. "shadow"). Their powers, however, are limited to their particular domain. A diwata of a forest, for instance, has no dominion over the sea. Most are generally benevolent or capriciously neutral, although they can cause misfortunes and illnesses if angered, disrespected, or mistakenly encountered.[5] [41] [42] [43] Other common characteristics of diwata are that they are perceived as an invisible "cold" presence (in contrast to "warm" human spirits); that they leave no footprints (unlike human spirits); and that they sense the world and "eat" by means of smelling.[44] Diwata who take human form are said to be pale-skinned and could be distinguished from humans by the absence of a philtrum on the upper lip.Diwata are often depicted as appearing to unsuspecting people in human or animal form, sometimes causing unintentional harm. They can also deliberately play tricks on mortals, like seducing or abducting beautiful men and women into the spirit world.[2] Certain places are believed to be owned by diwata or are borders to the spirit world. These are normally avoided or only entered with precautions, especially during twilight when diwata are believed to cross over from the spirit world into the material world. Harm or illness caused by diwata are known as buyag in Visayan and usog in Tagalog.[2] [45] People who were harmed by interactions with diwata are euphemistically described as having been "greeted" (Visayan: gibati, Tagalog: nabati) or "played with" (Visayan gidulaan, Tagalog: napaglaruan or nakatuwaan) by diwata.

To avoid inadvertently angering a diwata, Filipinos perform a customary pasintabi sa nuno ("respectfully apologizing or asking permission from ancestors for passing").[46] This is done by saying the phrases "tao po" ("a human [is passing], elder), "tabi po" or "tabi apo" ("by your permission, elder")[47] when passing by a place believed to be inhabited by a diwata.[7]

Diwata are also believed to be able to mate with humans. People born with congenital disorders (like albinism or syndactyly) or display unusual beauty or behavior are commonly believed by local superstition to be the children of diwata who seduced (or sometimes raped) their mothers.[48] [49]

During the Spanish period, diwata were syncretized with elves and fairies in European mythology and folklore, and were given names like duende (goblin or dwarf), encantador or encanto ("spell [caster]"), hechicero ("sorcerer"), sirena ("mermaid"), or maligno ("evil [spirit]").[2] [50] [51] In Islamized ethnic groups of the Philippines, these nature spirits are usually called jinn or saitan, due to the influence of Islamic mythology.[50] [52] [53]

Religious objects and places

Taotao figures

Ancestor spirits were usually represented by carved figures. These were known as taotao ("little human", also taotaohan, latawo, tinatao, or tatao),[54] bata-bata ("little child"), ladaw ("image" or "likeness"; also laraw, ladawang, lagdong, or larawan), or likha ("creation"; also likhak) in most of the Philippines. Other names include bulul (also bulol or bul-ul) among the Ifugao; tinagtaggu (also tinattaggu) among the Kankanaey and Tuwali Ifugao;[55] lablabbon among the Itneg;[56] manaug among the Lumad; and tagno among Bicolanos.[2] [5] [7] [41] [57] Among Tagalogs, taotao were also sometimes referred to as lambana ("altar" or "sacred place"),[58] after the location in which they are usually kept.[7] [57] Taotao were usually austere roughly-carved figures made from wood, stone, or ivory. Some taoatao encountered by the Spanish were made from precious metals or ornamented with gold and jewelry, but these were very rare.[2] [59] Taotao were almost always depicted in the squatting position with the arms crossed over the knees, which is reminiscent of the fetal position, the everyday conversing posture, and the position bodies are arranged during death among Ancient Filipinos. Some figures, however, are depicted standing or doing everyday activities like dancing, pounding rice, or nursing infants.[60] Most taotao represent an actual deceased person, usually carved by the community upon their funeral. As such, there can be hundreds of taotao in a single village, some of them centuries old.[61] In very rare cases, diwata can be depicted as taotao in anthropomorphic form, as chimeras or legendary creatures, or as animals.[7] [62] These include a special class of figures called hipag among the Igorot which depict war deities, as well as kinabigat (carved houseposts) and hogang (carved tree fern posts used as boundary markers and as wards against harm).[62] As a rule, however, diwata are not usually depicted as taotao or by any man-made representations.[5]

Taotao were not intrinsically sacred. They were representations of the spirits, not the actual spirits themselves. They only became sacred during their use in a pag-anito ritual. Without the spirit they represent, they are treated as mundane carved pieces of wood or sculpted stone. The anonymous author of the 1572 Relación de la conquista de la isla de Luzón describes pag-anito rituals of the Tagalog people as such:[63]

When any chief is ill, he invites his kindred and orders a great meal to be prepared, consisting of fish, meat, and wine. When the guests are all assembled and the feast set forth in a few plates on the ground inside the house, they seat themselves also on the ground to eat. In the midst of the feast (called manganito or baylán in their tongue), they put the idol called Batala and certain aged women who are considered as priestesses, and some aged Indians—neither more nor less. They offer the idol some of the food which they are eating, and call upon him in their tongue, praying to him for the health of the sick man for whom the feast is held. The natives of these islands have no altars nor temples whatsoever. This manganito, or drunken revel, to give it a better name, usually lasts seven or eight days; and when it is finished they take the idols and put them in the corners of the house, and keep them there without showing them any reverence.

Regardless, very old taotao handed down through generations are prized as family heirlooms. Among the Igorot, pieces of taotao may also be chipped off and boiled into a medicinal tea.[62]

Taotao were commonly kept in corners or small shelves inside houses or granaries. Spanish missionaries recorded that taotao were present in every Filipino household, no matter how poor.[2] [5] [64] [57]

When Spanish missionaries arrived in the Philippines, the word "anito" came to be associated with these physical representations of spirits that featured prominently in pag-anito rituals. During the American rule of the Philippines (1898–1946), the meaning of the Spanish word idolo ("a thing worshiped") was further conflated with the English word "idol". Thus in the modern Filipino language, anito has come to refer almost exclusively to the carved taotao figures, instead of the actual spirits themselves.[2] [65]

Shrines, altars, and sacred areas

See main article: Dambana. Ancient Filipinos and Filipinos who continue to adhere to the Indigenous Philippine folk religions generally do not have so-called "temples" of worship under the context known to foreign cultures.[2] [66] [67] However, they do have sacred shrines, which are also called as spirit houses.[2] They can range in size from small roofed platforms, to structures similar to a small house (but with no walls), to shrines that look similar to pagodas, especially in the south where early mosques were also modeled in the same way.[68] These shrines were known in various indigenous terms, which depend on the ethnic group association.[69] They can also be used as places to store taotao and caskets of ancestors. Among Bicolanos, taotao were also kept inside sacred caves called moog.[2] [70] [71] [72]

During certain ceremonies, anito are venerated through temporary altars near sacred places. These were called latangan or lantayan in Visayan and dambana or lambana in Tagalog.[73] These bamboo or rattan altars are identical in basic construction throughout most of the Philippines. They were either small roof-less platforms or standing poles split at the tip (similar to a tiki torch). They held halved coconut shells, metal plates, or martaban jars as receptacles for offerings. Taotao may sometimes also be placed on these platforms.[2] [41]

Other types of sacred places or objects of worship of diwata include the material manifestation of their realms. The most widely venerated were balete trees (also called nonok, nunuk, nonoc, etc.) and anthills or termite mounds (punso). Other examples include mountains, waterfalls, tree groves, reefs, and caves.[2] [5] [7] [74]

Spirit animals and plants

Some animals like crocodiles, snakes, monitor lizards, tokay geckos, and various birds were also venerated as servants or manifestations of diwata, or as powerful spirits themselves. These include legendary creatures like the dragon or serpent Bakunawa, the giant bird Minokawa of the Bagobo, and the colorful Sarimanok of the Maranao.[2] [5] [7] [75]

Omen birds were particularly important. The most common omen birds were doves with green or blue iridescent feathers called limokon (usually the common emerald dove, imperial pigeons, or brown doves).[76] Other omen birds include fairy-bluebirds (tigmamanukan, balan tikis, balatiti, or bathala among Tagalogs; and batala among Kapampangans); kingfishers (salaksak among the Ilocano, Igorot, and Sambal); and flowerpeckers (pitpit, ichaw, ido, or labeg among the Igorot).[7] [41] [77]

Certain animals (in addition to omen birds) are also believed to be manifestations of spirits, and there were taboos when interacting with them or speaking about them as their connections to the spirit world make them innately dangerous. This belief was universal among early Austronesian animism, existing not only in the Philippines, but also among the Taiwanese indigenous peoples, other Islander Southeast Asians, and Pacific Islanders. When spoken of, these spirit creatures are marked with a prefix, reconstructed as proto-Austronesian *qali- or *kali-,[78] which still survive fossilized in modern languages in Austronesian cultures, though the beliefs may have long been forgotten. Only very specific creatures were regarded in this way, the most prominent being butterflies which are still widely associated with ghosts. The animals in this category include the following:[79] [80]

The category also includes numerous plants, many of which are or were used in shamanic or medicinal applications, including Lepisanthes rubiginosa (Tagalog Tagalog: '''kali'''mayo), Ticanto crista (Tagalog Tagalog: '''kalu'''mbibit), Tabernaemontana pandacaqui (Aklanon '''ali'''butbut), Excoecaria agallocha (Aklanon '''ali'''pata), Musa acuminata (Tagalog Tagalog: '''ali'''nsanay), Diospyros pilosanthera (Tagalog Tagalog: '''ali'''ntataw), Basella rubra (Tagalog Tagalog: '''alu'''gbati), and nettles (Hanunóo '''ali'''ngatngat and Isneg '''ala'''latang), among many others.[79]

The prefix also extended to terms for actual spirits, like Tagalog Tagalog: '''kalu'''luwa ("soul"), Isneg '''Kala'''pataw (a totemic spirit of birds), Kankanaey '''ala'''dunáxan (a spirit who makes babies cry at night to disturb their parents' sleep), and Maranao '''ali'''mekat (a water spirit); as well as natural phenomena and other concepts believed to have direct ties to the spirit world, like echoes (e.g. Tagalog Tagalog: '''ali'''ngawngaw), whirlpools or tornadoes (e.g. Tagalog Tagalog: '''ali'''mpuyó and Bikol Bikol: '''ali'''púros), storms (e.g. Kankanaey '''ali'''mbudádbud), shadows (e.g. Kankanaey '''ala'''langaw), [clouds of] dust (e.g. Tagalog Tagalog: '''ali'''kabok and Western Bukidnon Manobo '''eli'''yavuk), sun or moon halos (e.g. Isneg '''ali'''bongbóng), unease or restlessness (e.g. Tagalog Tagalog: '''ali'''suwag), rustling of the grass or wind (e.g. Ilocano Iloko: '''ari'''nggunay and Kankanaey '''ali'''kadong), hair whorls (e.g. Cebuano Cebuano: '''ali'''mpulu and Hanunóo '''ari'''pudwan), mountain summits (e.g. Bikol Bikol: '''ali'''tuktok and Aklanon '''ali'''pungto), dizziness or fainting (e.g. Cebuano Cebuano: '''ali'''pulung, Pangasinan Pangasinan: '''ali'''moreng, and Kankanaey '''ali'''tengteng), confusion or forgetting (e.g. Kapampangan Pampanga; Kapampangan: '''kali'''ngwan and Bikol Bikol: '''ali'''walas), thick smoke or steam (e.g. Ilocano Iloko: '''ali'''ngasaw and Tagalog Tagalog: '''ali'''muóm), loud [annoying] noises (e.g. Cebuano Cebuano: '''ali'''ngasaw and Ifugao '''ali'''dogdog), the pupil of the eye (e.g. Tagalog Tagalog: '''ali'''kmata and Hiligaynon Hiligaynon: '''kali'''mutaw), and so on.[79]

Rituals and shamans

See main article: Philippine shamans. Anitism was not a religion about worship. Aside from good ancestor spirits and the few benevolent diwata, most anito were feared, not venerated. To an ordinary person, diwata were regarded as dangerous beings to be avoided or appeased. When interaction was necessary, they performed a ritual known as pag-anito (also mag-anito or anitohan). These are usually directed at ancestor spirits. When the pag-anito ceremony is for a diwata, the ritual is known as pagdiwata (also magdiwata or diwatahan).[2] [5]

Minor pag-anito rituals like praying for better weather or banishing minor ill luck can be performed by any householder. However, major pag-anito rituals required the services of the community shaman (Visayan babaylan or baylan; Tagalog katalonan or manganito).[2] [81]

These shamans were believed to have been "chosen" by a specific diwata who become their spirit guides.[82] This was presumed to happen after they pass the initiation rites of an older shaman they were apprenticed to (usually a relative). In some cases, some shamans acquire their status after they recover from a serious illness or a bout of insanity.[2] [83] [39] [45] [53] In most Filipino ethnic groups, shamans were almost always female. The few males who gain shaman status were usually asog or bayok,[84] feminized men.[2] [41] [45] [85] Major pag-anito rituals are centered around a séance. Because of their special relationship with their companion spirits, shamans can act as mediums for other anito, allowing spirits to temporarily possess their bodies. This possession happens after the shaman goes into a trance-like state. This allows the spirit to communicate verbally with the participants as well as physically act out events in the spirit world. At the moment of possession, shamans display a change in behavior and voice. They can sometimes go into seizures and become violent enough that restraints are required. The ritual ends when the spirit leaves and the shaman is awakened.[2]

Spirits were invited into the ritual through offerings and sacrifices during and after the ceremonies. These depended on what spirit was being summoned, but offerings are usually a small portion of the harvests, cooked food, wine, gold ornaments, and betel nut. Blood from an animal was also usually part of the offerings, poured directly on the taotao or in a bowl before them. These commonly come from chickens or pigs, but can also be from carabaos or dogs.[2] [5] Salt and spices are usually avoided, as they are believed to be distasteful to anito.[45] There is no record of human sacrifices being offered to anito during the Spanish period of the Philippines,[2] [64] [86] except among the Bagobo people in southern Mindanao where it was prevalent until the early 20th century.[87] [88] [89]

Another common pag-anito ritual throughout most of the Philippine ethnic groups involves the use of spirit boats. These were usually miniature boats laden with offerings set adrift from riverbanks and shorelines.[5] [6] [26]

Pag-anito can be conducted on its own or in conjunction with other rituals and celebrations. They can be personal or family rituals or seasonal community events. They can vary considerably between different ethnic groups. The most common pag-anito were entreaties for bountiful harvests, cures for illnesses, victory in battle, prayers for the dead, or blessings.[2] [41]

Different ethnic groups had different diwata pantheons and rituals associated with them, though sometimes deities are shared in neighboring ethnic groups. Moreover, different communities also each have their own local patron diwata.[5] [90]

Historical accounts

Historical accounts of anito in Spanish records include the following:

"When the natives were asked why the sacrifices were offered to the anito, and not to the Batala, they answered that the Batala was a great lord, and no one could speak to him. He lived in the sky; but the anito, who was of such a nature that he came down here to talk with men, was to the Batala as a minister, and interceded for them. In some places and especially in the mountain districts, when the father, mother, or other relative dies, the people unite in making a small wooden idol, and preserve it. Accordingly there is a house which contains one hundred or two hundred of these idols. These images also are called anitos; for they say that when people die, they go to serve the Batala. Therefore they make sacrifices to these anitos, offering them food, wine, and gold ornaments; and request them to be intercessors for them before the Batala, whom they regard as God." – Miguel de Loarca, Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas (1582)

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Notes and References

  1. Book: Guillermo . Artemio R. . Historical Dictionary of the Philippines . 2012 . Scarecrow Press . 9780810872462 . 140 .
  2. Book: William Henry Scott . William Henry Scott (historian) . Barangay: Sixteenth Century Philippine Culture and Society . Ateneo de Manila University Press . 1994 . Quezon City . 978-9715501354 .
  3. Book: The Soul Book: Introduction to Philippine Pagan Religion . Demetrio . Francisco R. . Cordero-Fernando . Gilda . Nakpil-Zialcita . Fernando. Feleo . Roberto B. . 1991 . GCF Books, Quezon City . Gilda Cordero-Fernando. B007FR4S8G.
  4. Book: Antonio Sánchez de la Rosa. Diccionario Hispano-Bisaya para las provincias de Samar y Leyte, Volumes 1–2. Tipo-Litografia de Chofre y Comp.. 1895. 414.
  5. Stephen K. Hislop. 1971. Anitism: a survey of religious beliefs native to the Philippines. Asian Studies. 9. 2. 144–156. May 10, 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20180707172324/http://www.asj.upd.edu.ph/mediabox/archive/ASJ-09-02-1971/hislop-anitism-survey-religious%20beliefs-native-philippines.pdf. July 7, 2018.
  6. Book: Virgil Mayor Apostol. Way of the Ancient Healer: Sacred Teachings from the Philippine Ancestral Traditions. North Atlantic Books. 2010. 9781583945971.
  7. Book: Jean-Paul G. Potet. Ancient Beliefs and Customs of the Tagalogs. Lulu Press Inc.. 2017. 235. 9780244348731.
  8. Book: Julian Baldick. Ancient Religions of the Austronesian World: From Australasia to Taiwan. I.B.Tauris. 2013. 3. 9780857733573.
  9. Book: Leberecht Funk. Y. Musharbash & G.H. Presterudstuen . Monster Anthropology in Australasia and Beyond. Entanglements between Tao People and Anito on Lanyu Island, Taiwan. Palgrave Macmillan. 2014. 143–159. 9781137448651. 10.1057/9781137448651_9 .
  10. Among most Filipino ethnic groups, a person is believed to be composed of at least two souls – the breath of life, will, or awareness (ginhawa or hininga, which stays with the living body) and the astral soul (kalag or kaluluwa, which can travel to the spirit world). The concept of soul dualism is sometimes referred to as "twin souls" or "double souls" and is a common belief in Austronesian cultures and other shamanistic cultures. Other names for the life soul include nyawa or nyawalihan (Tausug), niyawa (Maranao), niyawa-lihan (Jama Mapun), lennawa (Batad Ifugao), and nawa (T'boli). Other names for the astral soul include kaluha, dungan (Visayan); kalag (Bicol); kaduwa (Isneg), ab-abiik (Kankanaey), karurua (Ilocano), ikaruruwa (Ibanag), karaduwa (Mangyan), kiyaraluwa (Tagbanwa), makatu (Bukidnon), and kadengan-dengan or gimokud (Manobo). (Scott, 1994; Tan, 2008; Mercado, 1991; Talavera, 2014) Most of the terms for the astral soul literally translate to "twin" or "double", from PAN *duSa, "two". (Yu, 2000; Blust, 2010)
  11. Web site: The Soul According to the Ethnolinguistic Groups of the Philippines. April 15, 2017 . The Aswang Project. May 11, 2018.
  12. Leonardo N. Mercado. 1991. Soul and Spirit in Filipino Thought . Philippine Studies. 39. 3. 287–302. 42633258 .
  13. Book: Jose Vidamor B. Yu. Inculturation of Filipino-Chinese Culture Mentality. 3. Editrice Pontifica Universita Gregoriana. Interreligious and Intercultural Investigations. 2000. 148, 149. 9788876528484.
  14. Web site: Robert Blust & Stephen Trussel. Austronesian Comparative Dictionary: *du . Austronesian Comparative Dictionary . July 7, 2018.
  15. Book: Talavera . Maria Jezia . Tears of the Soul: A Reconstruction of Proto-Philippine forms on death and afterlife . 2014 . University of the Philippines .
  16. Compare with the Greek underworld
  17. After Spanish contact, various spirit worlds were syncretized into the Christian concept of heaven and hell in dictionaries and Bible translations. They struggled in determining which terminology to use because of the absence of the heaven and hell dichotomy in the Filipino concept of the spirit world. Spanish missionaries and European authors usually equated heaven with maca and calualhatian; and hell with casan (also casanaan, casauaan, or catanaan; sometimes misread as kasamaan). However, in the Boxer Codex maca and casan were synonyms for the Visayan and Tagalog underworlds. The 1754 version of Vocabulario de la lengua tagala used casanaan for both heaven and hell; with casanaan nang hirap as hell, and casanaan nang tova as heaven. Calualhatian (modern spelling: kaluwalhatian) was simply a region in the Tagalog spirit world that souls can enter by crossing a torrential river on a narrow plank. (Rath, 2013)
  18. Web site: How to Travel the Underworld of Philippine Mythology. April 14, 2018 . The Aswang Project. May 11, 2018.
  19. Book: Imke Rath. Astrid Windus & Eberhard Crailsheim. Image – Object – Performance: Mediality and Communication in Cultural Contact Zones of Colonial Latin America and the Philippines. Depicting Netherworlds, or the Treatment of the Afterlife in a Colonial Contact Zone: The Paete Case. Waxmann Verlag. 2013. 9783830979296. https://books.google.com/books?id=qWVfAgAAQBAJ.
  20. Salvador-Amores . Analyn . Batok (Traditional Tattoos) in Diaspora: The Reinvention of a Globally Mediated Kalinga Identity . South East Asia Research . June 2011 . 19 . 2 . 293–318 . 10.5367/sear.2011.0045. 146925862 .
  21. Ragragio . Andrea Malaya M. . Paluga . Myfel D. . An Ethnography of Pantaron Manobo Tattooing (Pangotoeb): Towards a Heuristic Schema in Understanding Manobo Indigenous Tattoos . Southeast Asian Studies . August 22, 2019 . 8 . 2 . 259–294 . 10.20495/seas.8.2_259 . 202261104 .
  22. Book: Alvina . C.S. . Oshima . Neal M. . Paterno . Maria Elena . Dreamweavers . 2001 . Makati City, Philippines: Bookmark . Colors and patterns of dreams . 9715694071 . 46–58.
  23. Web site: The Preconquest Filipino Tattoos . Datu Press . August 10, 2021. January 10, 2018.
  24. Also mua, mamaw, mamanhig, pamahoy, mamamahoy (McCoy, 1982); later multo. from Spanish muerto, "dead person" (Tan, 2008)
  25. Book: Maria Christine N. Halili. Philippine History. Rex Bookstore, Inc.. 2004. 58–59. 9789712339349.
  26. Fay-Cooper Cole & Albert Gale. 1922. The Tinguian; Social, Religious, and Economic life of a Philippine tribe. Field Museum of Natural History: Anthropological Series. 14. 2. 235–493.
  27. Web site: Mindanao Customs and Beliefs. SEAsite, Northern Illinois University. May 11, 2018. October 24, 2020. https://web.archive.org/web/20201024122440/http://www.seasite.niu.edu/tagalog/Mindanao_Culture/mindanao_customs.htm. dead.
  28. Rodney C. Jubilado. Hanafi Hussin. Maria Khristina Manueli. amp. 2011. The Sama-Bajaus of Sulu-Sulawesi Seas: perspectives from linguistics and culture. Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 15. 1. 83–95.
  29. Book: Robert B. Fox. Jesus T. Peralta. Pinagmulan: Enumeration from the Philippine Inventory of Intangible Cultural Heritage. Pagdiwata Ritual. National Commission for Culture and the Arts (NCCA), Republic of the Philippines & International Information and Networking Centre for Intangible Cultural Heritage in the Asia-Pacific Region under the auspices of UNESCO. 2013. 167–171. http://www.ichcap.org/eng/ek/sub3/pdf_file/domain3/074_Pagdiwata_Ritual.pdf. July 5, 2018. July 10, 2015. https://web.archive.org/web/20150710170311/http://ichcap.org/eng/ek/sub3/pdf_file/domain3/074_Pagdiwata_Ritual.pdf. dead.
  30. e.g. Nuno sa punso, a dwarf-like anito that lives in anthills; and Dayang Masalanta, the Tagalog diwata of Mount Makiling
  31. e.g. Mayari, the Tagalog goddess of the moon; Barangaw, the Visayan god of rainbows; and Makapatag, the Visayan god of vengeance
  32. e.g. Bathala, the chief deity of the Tagalogs; Magbabaya, the supreme creator of the Lumad people; and Pilandok, trickster spirit of the Maranao
  33. Tagalogs differentiated between Diwata, the universal supreme being, and life creator Bathala, the supreme deity exclusive to them (Hislop, 1971)
  34. The most widespread names for these spirits in various Philippine ethnic groups are diwata or anito. Other names of diwata or specific types of diwata include fieu awas, kahoynon (B'laan); mahomanay, tahamaling (Bagobo); panya'en (Batak); tawong lipod, magindara (Bikol); magtitima, tawo sa talonan (Bukidnon); aled (Gaddang); annani (Ibanag); bakayauwan, monduntug, palasekan, pili, pinading (Ifugao); mangmangkit, katataoan/katawtaw-an, kibaan, litao (Ilocano); apdel, sasailo (Itneg); tumungaw (Kankana-ey); laman labuad, manglilili (Kapampangan); kama-kama/kamakaon (Karay-a); tuglinsau, tagbusau, mandangum (Mandaya); andagaw (Mangyan); tawagenen, manaog (Manobo); karibang (Maranao); kaybaan (Pangasinan); kamanan-daplak (Sambal); dayamdam, piritay (Tagalog); tawo sa talonan (Tagbanwa); lewenri, bawa, katao/kataw, tumawo/tamawo, tawong lupa (Visayan); and guban-on, digkusanon, dalaketnon (Waray).
  35. Book: Dario Novellino. David G. Anderson & Eeva Berglund. Ethnographies of Conservation: Environmentalism and the Distribution of Privilege. Contrasting Landscapes, Conflicting Ontologies: Assessing Environmental Conservation on Palawan Island (The Philippines). Berghahn Books. 2003. 171–188. 9780857456748. https://books.google.com/books?id=R1WwBWFEljQC.
  36. With strong parallels to human-like beings like elves and aos sí, as well as diminutive human-like beings like brownies and pixies. (Buenconsejo, 2002)
  37. Not to be confused with the Tagbanwa and Mamanwa ethnic groups, all derived from PAN
    • banua
    , "home" or "homeland". In modern Filipino languages, banwa has been supplanted by Spanish lugar, thus taglugar is used in place of tagabanwa (Hislop, 1971; Tan, 2008).
  38. Web site: Dili-ingon-nato. Binisaya.com. May 12, 2018.
  39. PhD . Augusto Jose B. Gatmaytan . 2013 . Indigenous Autonomy Amid Counter-Insurgency: Cultural Citizenship in a Philippine Frontier . Department of Anthropology, London School of Economics and Political Science.
  40. Book: Alex G. Paman. Filipino Ghost Stories: Spine-Tingling Tales of Supernatural Encounters and Hauntings. Tuttle Publishing. 2010. 9781462900916.
  41. A. L. Kroeber. 1918. The History of Philippine Civilization as Reflected in Religious Nomenclature. Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. XXI. Part II. 35–37.
  42. Book: Paul A. Rodell. Culture and Customs of the Philippines. Greenwood Publishing Group. Culture and Customs of Asia. 2002. 30–32. 9780313304156.
  43. Web site: A Compendium of Creatures & Mythical Beings from Philippine Folklore & Mythology. February 22, 2016 . The Aswang Project. May 11, 2018.
  44. Diwata can cause harm by "eating" (smelling) the "vital force" or "breath" (ginhawa) of human beings. They are also said to be annoyed by perfume, as well as salt and spices. (Buenconsejo, 2002)
  45. Book: Jose S. Buenconsejo. Jennifer C. Post. Songs and Gifts at the Frontier. Routledge. Current Research in Ethnomusicology: Outstanding Dissertations Volume 4. 2013. 98–99. 9781136719806.
  46. From sintabi, "to respectfully ask permission" or "to give due respect", cf. "excuse me"
  47. In Ilocano, the traditional phrase is "bari bari, apo", with the same meaning (Tan, 2008)
  48. News: Magkakapatid na albino, anak ng engkanto? . November 23, 2018 . Patrol.ph . ABS-CBN News . June 19, 2017.
  49. News: Santisteban . Bong . What it's like to live with albinism . November 23, 2018 . Rappler . June 13, 2018.
  50. Book: Michael L. Tan. Revisiting Usog, Pasma, Kulam. University of the Philippines Press. 2008. 9789715425704.
  51. Book: Cynthia A. Strong & David K. Strong. Gailyn Van Rheenen. Contextualization and Syncretism: Navigating Cultural Currents. Dwarves, Elves, and Vampires: An Exploration of Syncretism in Metro Manila. William Carey Library. Evangelical Missiological Society No. 13. 2006. 9780878083879. https://books.google.com/books?id=E84GB2f2a9QC.
  52. Book: Clifford Sather. Peter Bellwood . James J. Fox . Darrell Tryon . The Austronesians: Historical and Comparative Perspectives. Sea Nomads and Rainforest Hunter-Gatherers: Foraging Adaptations in the Indo-Malaysian Archipelago – The Sama-Bajau. ANU E Press. 2006. 257–264. 9781920942854. http://press.anu.edu.au/austronesians/austronesians/mobile_devices/ch13s04.html.
  53. Book: Hanafi Hussin. Birgit Abels . Morag Josephine Grant . Andreas Waczkat . Oceans of Sound: Sama Dilaut Performing Arts. Balancing the Spiritual and Physical Worlds: Memory, Responsibility, and Survival in the Rituals of the Sama Dilaut (Bajau laut) in Sitangkai, Tawi-Tawi, Southern Philippines and Semporna, Sabah, Malaysia. Göttinger Studien zur Musikwissenschaft Volume 3. 2010. http://eprints.um.edu.my/11446/1/balancing_th_the_spiritual.pdf.
  54. From Proto-Malayo-Polynesian *tau, ultimately from Proto-Austronesian *Cau, "human" or "person"; compare with Toraja tau tau statues
  55. Tinagtaggu is a cognate of taotao in the Tuwali language; from tagu, "human"
  56. Book: Villanueva . Cristina B. . Classification and Indexing of Philippine Indigenous Materials with Emphasis on the Cordillera . 2016 . University of the Philippines Baguio .
  57. Book: Ferdinand Blumentritt . Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der bei den philippinischen Eingeborenen üblichen Eigennamen, welche auf Religion, Opfer und priesterliche Titel und Amtsverrichtungen sich beziehen. (Fortsetzung.). Orientalisches Institut, Universität Wien. 8. 1894. 147. https://books.google.com/books?id=LLVBAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA147.
  58. The term lambana was later syncretized with fairies, commonly depicted as tiny winged beings in modern illustrations, even though no similarly winged beings existed in native Filipino folklore (Potet, 2017). Conversely, the alternate term dambana has come to mean "shrine" or "chapel" in modern Tagalog
  59. Book: Teodoro A. Agoncillo. Introduction to Filipino History. Radiant Star Pub.. 1974. 21.
  60. Aurora Roxas-Lim. 1973. Art in Ifugao Society. Asian Studies. 11. 2. 47–74.
  61. Book: Gregorio F. Zaide. Tanya Storch. Religions and Missionaries around the Pacific, 1500–1900. Filipinos Before the Spanish Conquest Possessed a Well-Ordered and Well-Thought-Out Religion. Routledge. The Pacific World: Lands, Peoples and History of the Pacific, 1500–1900, Volume 17. 2017. 9781351904780. https://books.google.com/books?id=5gokDwAAQBAJ.
  62. Web site: Gallery of Exhibits. Museum of Cordilleran Sculpture. May 11, 2018.
  63. Book: Relation of the Conquest of the Island of Luzon. The Philippine Islands, 1493–1898. Arthur H. Clark Company. 1903. Blair. Emma Helen. Emma Helen Blair. 3. Ohio, Cleveland. 145. Robertson. James Alexander. James Alexander Robertson.
  64. Book: Gregorio F. Zaide. Philippine Political and Cultural History. 1. Philippine Education Company. 1975. 68.
  65. Book: Frederic H. Sawyer. The Inhabitants of the Philippines. Charles Scribner's Sons. 1900.
  66. Stephen K. Hislop (1971). "Anitism: a survey of religious beliefs native to the Philippines" (PDF). Asian Studies. 9 (2): 144–156
  67. Ferdinand Blumentritt (1894). "Alphabetisches Verzeichnis der bei den philippinischen Eingeborenen üblichen Eigennamen, welche auf Religion, Opfer und priesterliche Titel und Amtsverrichtungen sich beziehen. (Fortsetzung.)". Wiener Zeitschrift für die Kunde des Morgenlandes. 8. Orientalisches Institut, Universität Wien. p. 147.
  68. Madale, N. T. (2003). In Focus: A Look at Philippine Mosques. National Commission for Culture and the Arts.
  69. Known as magdantang in Visayan and ulango or simbahan in Tagalog. Among the Itneg, shrines are known tangpap, pangkew, or alalot (for various small roofed altars); and balaua or kalangan (for larger structures). In Mindanao, shrines are known among the Subanen as maligai; among the Teduray as tenin (only entered by shamans); and among the Bagobo as buis (for those built near roads and villages) and parabunnian (for those built near rice fields).(Kroeber, 1918)
  70. A. L. Kroeber (1918). "The History of Philippine Civilization as Reflected in Religious Nomenclature". Anthropological Papers of the American Museum of Natural History. XXI (Part II): 35–37.
  71. Cole, Fay-Cooper; Gale, Albert (1922). "The Tinguian; Social, Religious, and Economic life of a Philippine tribe". Field Museum of Natural History: Anthropological Series. 14 (2): 235–493
  72. Gregorio F. Zaide (2017). "Filipinos Before the Spanish Conquest Possessed a Well-Ordered and Well-Thought-Out Religion". In Tanya Storch (ed.). Religions and Missionaries around the Pacific, 1500–1900. The Pacific World: Lands, Peoples and History of the Pacific, 1500–1900, Volume 17. Routledge. .
  73. Also saloko or palaan (Itneg); sakolong (Bontoc); salagnat (Bicolano); sirayangsang (Tagbanwa); ranga (Teduray); and tambara, tigyama, or balekat (Bagobo)
  74. Francisco R. Demetrio. 1973. Philippine Shamanism and Southeast Asian Parallels. Asian Studies. 11. 2. 128–154.
  75. Book: Teodoro A. Agoncillo & Oscar M. Alfonso. History of the Filipino People. Malaya Books. 1969. 42.
  76. Limokon in most of Visayas and among the Lumad; also almúgan (Blaan), alimúkun (Cebuano), alimúkeng (Ilocano); limoken (Maranao); muhen (T'boli); lemuguen (Teduray); and limukun (Subanen)
  77. Book: Gregory Forth. Sonia Tidemann & Andrew Gosler. Ethno-ornithology: Birds, Indigenous Peoples, Culture and Society. What's in a Bird's Name: Relationships among Ethno-ornithological Terms in Nage and Other Malayo-Polynesian Languages. Earthscan. 2012. 9781849774758. https://books.google.com/books?id=8u2nUWLYx18C.
  78. With numerous variants in proto-Malayo-Polynesian including *buli-, *dali-, *kala-, *kali-, *kalu-, *kula-, *kuli-, *kuliN-, *kulu-, *pali-, *qali-, *qaNi-, *qari-, *quNi-, *sali-, *tali-, etc. (Blust, 2001)
  79. Book: Robert. Blust. Joel . Bradshaw. Kenneth. Rehg. Issues in Austronesian morphology: a focusschrift for Byron W. Bender. Historical morphology and the spirit world: the *qali/kali- prefixes in Austronesian languages. The Australian National University. Canberra. Pacific Linguistics. 2001. 15–73. 0858834855.
  80. Web site: Blust . Robert . Trussel . Stephen . *qali-, prefix for words with a sensitive reference to the spirit world (cf. *kali-) . Austronesian Comparative Dictionary . 15 March 2024.
  81. Other terms include balyana, paraanito, or paradiwata (Bicolano); balian, balyan, or mabalian (Lumad); balian or tanguilin (Subanen); bawalyan or babaylan (Tagbanwa); beljan (Palaw'an); baglan, mangoodan, or manilao (Ilocano);bahasa (Yakan); dukun, kalamat, or papagan (Sama-Bajau); mandadawak, dawak, insupak, mon-lapu, tumunoh, alpogan, or mumbaki (Igorot); anitu (Aeta); and ma-aram (Karay-a)
  82. Terms for spirit guides of shamans include bantay, abyan (Visayan); alagad, gabay (Tagalog); abyan, umli, sugujen, or inajew (Lumad); saro (Bicolano); and jinn (Sama-Bajau)
  83. Book: Fenella Cannell. Power and Intimacy in the Christian Philippines. Cambridge University Press. Cambridge Studies in Social and Cultural Anthropology, Volume 109. 1999. 9780521646222.
  84. Asog is the term used for transvestite male shamans in most of the Visayas and in the Bicol Region. In the rest of Luzon, they are known as bayok (bayoc), bayog, or bayogin (bayoguin or bayoquin). Notably among the Sambal, the highest-ranking shaman was a bayok. They are also known as labia among the Subanen, though they were not necessarily shamans (Kroeber, 1918). There are also similar trans women shamans among the Dayak people of Borneo (Baldick, 2013). Also see Bakla
  85. Web site: 6 Guidelines for Becoming a Filipino Shaman. December 4, 2016 . The Aswang Project. May 12, 2018.
  86. Alfred W. McCoy. 1982. Baylan: animist religion and Philippine peasant ideology. Philippine Quarterly of Culture and Society. 10. 3. 141–194. 29791761.
  87. Book: Joachim Schliesinger. Traditional Human Sacrifices in Southeast Asia and Beyond. White Elephant Press. 2017. 75. 9781946765710.
  88. Laura Watson Benedict. 1916. A Study of Bagobo Ceremonial, Magic and Myth. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 25. 1. 1–308. 10.1111/j.1749-6632.1916.tb55170.x. 1916NYASA..25....1B . 2027/miun.afy4779.0001.001. 222087174. free.
  89. Some anthropologists consider the headhunting traditions of the Igorot as a form of human sacrifice. In the funeral rites for celebrated warriors or nobles among Visayans and Tagalogs, favorite slaves may also sometimes be executed and buried (hogot) to accompany the deceased into the spirit world (Scott, 1994; Benedict, 1916)
  90. In modern Christianized Filipinos, this practice was transferred unto community patron saints and religious icons, which are often celebrated and worshiped in a very similar way (Hislop, 1971), cf. Ati-Atihan, Obando Fertility Rites
  91. Web site: Babaylan Festival of Bago City. Belle Piccio. January 30, 2014. ChoosePhilippines. May 21, 2018.
  92. News: Maricar Cinco. December 3, 2009. Palawan art gets closer to community. Philippine Daily Inquirer. 24. 358.
  93. Web site: Amaya . GMA Entertainment . February 9, 2020.
  94. Web site: Diwata (1987). IMDb . February 9, 2020.
  95. Web site: 'I Juander': Naniniwala pa ba sa diwata si Juan? . GMA News . July 15, 2013 .
  96. Web site: Faraway (2014) . IMDb . February 9, 2020.
  97. Web site: January 27, 2013. Bong proud to be called 'Indio' . Manila Standard . February 9, 2020.
  98. Web site: Okay ka, fairy ko! . IMDb . February 9, 2020.
  99. Web site: Andrivet . Sébastien . Titania-class warframe . Writeups.org . February 9, 2020.
  100. Web site: Woodyatt . Danielle . Langton . Ami . Early launch of the Kuva lich, plus Grendel warframe, lays foundation for Empyrean in Waframe's The Old Blood update . Gamasutra . February 9, 2020.
  101. Web site: Logarta . Michael . 'Tadhana' is a Filipino tabletop RPG that beautifully encapsulates local myths . GMA Network . February 9, 2020. November 8, 2017.
  102. . Kevin Sharpe . Kevin Sharpe . Thor & Hercules: Encyclopaedia Mythologica. 1 . July 2009. .
  103. Web site: MYXclusive: ABRA Talks About His Hit Music Video "Diwata"! – MYX | YOUR CHOICE. YOUR MUSIC . Myxph.com . February 22, 2015.
  104. News: The Philippines' 50-kg-class microsatellite "DIWATA-1" has been received. DIWATA-1 will be released from Kibo this spring. . November 7, 2020 . Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency . February 3, 2016.
  105. News: DIWATA-2: Ready to Launch into Space . November 7, 2020 . Philippine Council for Industry, Energy, and Emerging Technology Research and Development (DOST-PCIEERD) . October 25, 2018.

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