Ancient Greek verbs have four moods (indicative, imperative, subjunctive and optative), three voices (active, middle and passive), as well as three persons (first, second and third) and three numbers (singular, dual and plural).
The distinction of the "tenses" in moods other than the indicative is predominantly one of aspect rather than time.
The different persons of a Greek verb are shown by changing the verb-endings; for example Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: λύω "I free", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: λύεις "you free", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: λύει "he or she frees", etc. There are three persons in the singular ("I", "you (singular)", "he, she, it"), and three in the plural ("we", "you (plural)", "they"). In addition there are endings for the 2nd and 3rd persons dual ("you two", "they both"), but these are only very rarely used.
A distinction is traditionally made between the so-called athematic verbs (also called mi-verbs), with endings affixed directly to the root, and the thematic class of verbs which present a "thematic" vowel pronounced as //o// or pronounced as //e// before the ending. The endings are classified into primary (those used in the present, future, perfect and future perfect of the indicative, as well as in the subjunctive) and secondary (used in the aorist, imperfect, and pluperfect of the indicative, as well as in the optative).
To make the past tenses of the indicative mood, the vowel Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ε-, called an "augment", is prefixed to the verb stem, e.g. aorist Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔ-λυσα "I freed", imperfect Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔ-λυον "I was freeing". This augment is found only in the indicative, not in the other moods or in the infinitive or participle. To make the perfect tense the first consonant is "reduplicated", that is, repeated with the vowel e (Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: λέλυκα "I have freed", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: γέγραφα "I have written"), or in some cases an augment is used in lieu of reduplication (e.g. Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ηὕρηκα "I have found"). Unlike the augment of past tenses, this reduplication or augment is retained in all the moods of the perfect tense as well as in the perfect infinitive and participle.
The Ancient Greek verbal system preserves nearly all the complexities of Proto-Indo-European (PIE). Ancient Greek also preserves the PIE middle voice and adds a passive voice, with separate forms only in the future and aorist (elsewhere, the middle forms are used).
The Ancient Greek verb has three voices: active, middle, and passive. The middle and the passive voice are identical in the present, imperfect, perfect, and pluperfect tenses, but differ in the future and aorist tenses.
Active voice verbs are those which end in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ω -ō or Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -μι -mi in the 1st person singular of the present tense. An active voice verb can be intransitive, transitive or reflexive (but intransitive is most common):
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: εἰς Ἀθήνᾱς '''ἔπλευσε'''.[1]
He sailed to Athens.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ἐφύλαττον''' τὰ τείχη.[2]
They were guarding the walls.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: αὐτὸς αὑτὸν '''διέφθειρεν'''.[3]
.
He killed himself.
Other verbs end in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ομαι (-omai) or Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -μαι (-mai) in the 1st person singular of the present tense. These can be either passive or non-passive in meaning. When the meaning of such a verb is not passive, it is known as a "middle voice" verb.
Middle voice verbs are usually intransitive, but can also be transitive. Often the middle endings make a transitive verb intransitive:
Sometimes there is a reflexive meaning or an idea of doing something for one's own benefit:
Sometimes there can be a reciprocal meaning:
Quite a number of verbs which are active in the present tense become middle in the future tense, e.g.:
A number of common verbs ending in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ομαι or Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -μαι have no active-voice counterpart. These are known as "deponent" verbs.
Deponent middle verbs include verbs such as the following. Some have a "weak" aorist:
With "strong" aorist:
Irregular:
Some middle deponent verbs have a weak aorist tense formed with Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -σα-, e.g. Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐδεξάμην, but frequently they have a strong aorist middle such as Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἀφικόμην "I arrived" or Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐγενόμην "I became". (Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔρχομαι "I come" is irregular in that it uses a strong aorist active Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἦλθον "I came" as its aorist tense.)
All the above, since they have an aorist in the middle voice, are known as middle deponents. There are also deponent passive verbs with aorists in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -θη-, such as the following:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: τὰ δῶρα '''ἐδέξατο'''.[4]
.
He received the gifts.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐγγὺς δὲ '''γενομένων''' τῶν Ἀθηναίων, '''ἐμάχοντο'''.[5]
.
When the Athenians came near, the two sides began fighting.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: οὐκέτι '''ἐδυνήθη''' πλείω εἰπεῖν[6]
He became unable to say any more.
Occasionally a verb ending in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ομαι (-omai) has a clear passive sense. If so, it is said to be in the passive voice:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἡ πόλις ὑπὸ τῶν Λακεδαιμονίων '''ἤρχετο'''.[7]
.
The city was being ruled by the Spartans.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐν τῷ νόμῳ '''γέγραπται'''.[8]
.
It is written in the law. (it has been written)
Usually when used passively, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ομαι (-omai) verbs have an aorist tense containing Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -θη- (-thē-) in the ending:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐκεῖνοι κατ’ ἀξίᾱν '''ἐτιμήθησαν'''.[9]
.
Those men were deservedly honoured.
Occasionally, an aorist passive can have an ending with -η- (-ē-). This is known as the 2nd aorist or strong aorist passive, and uses a different verb-stem from the present. In the example below, the stem is Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: φθαρ- instead of the present stem Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: φθειρ-:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: οἱ πολλοὶ '''ἐφθάρησαν'''.[10]
.
The majority were killed.
Deponent middle verbs can also be made passive in some tenses. Thus αἱρέομαι (hairéomai) "I choose" has an aorist passive ᾑρέθην (hēiréthēn) "I was chosen":
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: στρατηγὸς ὑπ’ αὐτῶν '''ᾑρέθη'''.[11]
.
He was chosen by them as general.
The endings with -θη- (-thē-) and -η- (-ē-) were originally intransitive actives rather than passives and sometimes have an intransitive meaning even in Classical Greek. For example, ἐσώθην (esṓthēn) (from Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: σῴζω sōízō "I save") often means "I got back safely" rather than "I was saved":
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: οὐκ '''ἐσώθη''' ἡ ναῦς εἰς τὸν Πειραιᾶ.[12]
.
The ship did not get back safely to Piraeus.
Ancient Greek verbs can be divided into two groups, the thematic (in which a thematic vowel pronounced as //e// or pronounced as //o// is added before the ending, e.g. Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: λύ-ο-μεν "we free"), and the athematic (in which the endings are attached directly to the stem, e.g. Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐσ-μέν "we are". Thematic verbs are much more numerous.
Thematic verbs, in the 1st person singular of the present tense active, end in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ω . These are very numerous, for example, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: λέγω "I say", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: γράφω "I write", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: πέμπω "I send", etc. The endings of these tend to be regular:
I say, you say, he/she/it says, (you two say, they both say,) we say, you say, they say
The forms in brackets are the dual number, used for two people, and which exists only in the 2nd and 3rd person; it is rather rare, but still used sometimes by authors such as Aristophanes and Plato:
.
Homer and Hesiod both say the same things.
The present infinitive active of thematic verbs is Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ειν, e.g. Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: λέγειν "to say".
Thematic verbs are also found in the middle voice, with the 1st person singular ending Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ομαι e.g. Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἀποκρῑ́νομαι "I answer", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: γίγνομαι "I become". The endings of the present tense go as follows:
I, you (singular), he/she/it, (you two, the two of them), we, you (plural), they
The middle present infinitive is Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -εσθαι, e.g. Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἀποκρῑ́νεσθαι "to answer".
Some middle verbs are attested in the first person dual, albeit rarely:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''Νὼ''' μὲν οὖν '''ὁρμώμεθον'''[14]
And so we two are going
Many middle-voice verbs, such as Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἀποκρῑ́νομαι "I answer", are deponent, that is to say, they have no corresponding active form. Other middle verbs, such as Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: παύομαι "I cease (doing something)" (intransitive), have a corresponding active form: Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: παύω "I stop (something)" (transitive).
Passive verbs, in the present, imperfect, and perfect tenses, have exactly the same endings as middle verbs. Examples are Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: διώκομαι "I am pursued" and Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: κελεύομαι "I am ordered (by someone)".
In the aorist tense, however, they differ from middle verbs in that they use the endings Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -σθην, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -θην, or Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ην, for example Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐδιώχθην "I was pursued", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐκελεύσθην "I was ordered", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐβλάβην "I was harmed"; whereas middle verbs tend to have an aorist ending in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -σάμην, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -άμην, or Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -όμην, for example Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐπαυσάμην "I stopped", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἀπεκρινάμην "I answered", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐγενόμην "I became".
See main article: Pure verbs. A special class of thematic verbs are the contracted verbs. In the dictionary these are entered as ending Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -άω, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -έω or Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -όω, for example Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὁράω "I see", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ποιέω "I do", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: δηλόω "I show"; but in most cases when they are found in a text the vowel Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: α, ε, ο contracts with the ending to make a single vowel. Thus the present tense of Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὁράω "I see" goes as follows:
I see, you see, he/she/it sees, (you both see, they both see,) we see, you see, they see
while the present tense of Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ποιέω "I do" is as follows:
I do, you do, he/she/it does, (you both do, they both do,) we do, you (plural) do, they do
and the present tense of Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: δηλόω "I show" is as follows:
I show, you show, he/she/it shows, (you both show, they both show,) we show, you (plural) show, they show
The present infinitive active of the three types of contracted verbs is Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὁρᾶν "to see", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ποιεῖν, "to do", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: δηλοῦν "to show".
Contracted verbs are also found in the middle and passive voices, e.g. Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἀφικνέομαι/ἀφικνοῦμαι "I arrive" and Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: τιμάομαι/τιμῶμαι "I am honoured".
Athematic verbs have Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -μι in the 1st person singular of the present tense, e.g. Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: εἰμί "I am", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: φημί "I say", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: δίδωμι "I give", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: τίθημι "I put", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἵστημι "I stand (transitive)". In the middle voice they end in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -μαι, e.g. Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: δύναμαι "I am able". The present tense of Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: εἶμι "I (will) go" is generally used with future meaning in the classical period.
These verbs present many irregularities in conjugation. For example, the present tense of Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: εἰμί "I am" goes as follows:
I am, you are, he/she/it is, (you both are, they both are), we are, you (plural) are, they are.
The present tense of the verb Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: εἶμι "I (will) go" is as follows:
I will go, you will go, he/she/it will go, (you both will go, they both will go), we will go, you (plural) will go, they will go
wheras the present tense of Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: δίδωμι "I give" goes as follows:
I give, you give, he/she/it gives, we give, you (plural) give, they give
The dual of this verb, theoretically Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: δίδοτον, is not found.[15]
The active infinitive of athematic verbs ends in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ναι, e.g. Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: εἶναι "to be", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἰέναι "to go", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: διδόναι "to give".
Athematic verbs are also found in the middle voice, e.g. Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἵσταμαι "I stand" or Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: δύναμαι "I am able", with endings as follows:
I, you (singular), he/she/it, (you two, the two of them), we, you (plural), they
The infinitive is Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -σθαι .
The verb Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: οἶδα "I know", is irregular. Its endings are those of an athematic perfect tense, and go as follows:
I know, you know, he/she/it knows, (you both know, they both know), we know, you (plural) know, they know
The infinitive of Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: οἶδα is Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: εἰδέναι "to know".
The Ancient Greek verbal system has seven tense-aspect forms, traditionally called "tenses" (Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: χρόνοι,, singular,). The temporal distinctions only appear in the indicative mood as shown on the table below:[16]
| perfective aspect | imperfective aspect | perfect aspect | |||
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| primary sequence | future time | future | future perfect | ||
| present time | present[17] | perfect | |||
| secondary sequence | past time | aorist, (imperfect) | imperfect | pluperfect | |
In the subjunctive and imperative moods, however, only three tenses are used, and they distinguish aspect only, not time:
The optative mood likewise uses these three tenses, but there is also a future optative, used mainly to report indirectly what would be a future indicative in direct speech.
Ancient Greek has no perfect progressive or past perfect progressive. Thus, the meaning "he has been doing" is typically expressed with the present tense, and "he had been doing (earlier)" is expressed with the imperfect tense:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: πολλά γε ἔτη ἤδη '''εἰμὶ''' ἐν τῇ τέχνῃ.[18]
I have been (I am) in the business for many years now.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: τὸ πλοῖον ἧκεν ἐν ᾧ '''ἐπῑ́νομεν'''.[19]
The boat arrived in which we had (earlier) been drinking.
For further information on the endings, see Ancient Greek grammar tables.
Dictionaries of Ancient Greek usually give six principal parts for any verb. For example, for the verb Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: παιδεύω "I teach, train" the six parts are as follows:
I teach, I will teach, I taught, I have taught, I have been taught, I was taughtThe best guide to the true stem of the verb is often in the future or aorist active tense (after removing any added σ sigma markers), because the present system often has progressive markers that distort the stem of the verb.
The principal parts are these:
Endings: Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ω -εις -ει (-ετον -ετον) -ομεν -ετε -ουσι(ν)
Endings: Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -σω -σεις -σει (-σετον -σετον) -σομεν -σετε -σουσι(ν)
Endings: Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -σα -σας -σε(ν) (-σατον -σατην) -σαμεν -σατε -σαν
Endings: Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -κα -κας -κε(ν) (-κατον -κατον) -καμεν -κατε -κᾱσι(ν)
Endings: Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -μαι -σαι -ται (-σθον -σθον) -μεθα -σθε -νται
Endings: Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -θην -θης -θη (-θητον -θητην) -θημεν -θητε -θησαν
As above, the endings in brackets are 2nd and 3rd person dual number ('the two of you', 'the two of them'). These are less often used than the singular and plural.
Other tenses can be formed on the basis of these. For example, the imperfect tense Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐπαίδευον "I was teaching" is based on the present stem with the addition of the prefix Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔ- (called an "augment", see below), and the pluperfect Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐπεπαιδεύκη "I had taught" is formed from the perfect stem:
Endings: Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ον -ες -ε(ν) (-ετον -ετην) -ομεν -ετε -ον
Endings: Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -κη (-κειν) -ης (-κεις) -κει(ν) (–) -κεμεν -κετε -κεσαν
Not all verbs have a future tense made with Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -σ- . Some, particularly those whose stem ends in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: λ, μ, ν, ρ such as Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἀγγέλλω "I announce" and Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: μένω "I remain", have a contracted future, with endings like the verb Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ποιέω . These same verbs also usually have an aorist without sigma:
Endings: Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ῶ -εῖς -εῖ (-εῖτον -εῖτον) -οῦμεν -εῖτε -οῦσι(ν)
Endings: Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -α -ας -ε(ν) (-ατον -ατην) -αμεν -ατε -αν
Some common verbs, instead of the ordinary (weak) aorist tense ending in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -σα, have an aorist ending in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ον etc. exactly like the imperfect; this is known as a "strong" aorist or "2nd" aorist. However, it differs from the imperfect in that the stem of the verb is different. Thus the aorist of Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''φεύγ'''ω 'I flee' is Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔ'''φυγ'''ον 'I fled', with stem Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: φυγ-, contrasting with the imperfect Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔ'''φευ'''γον 'I was fleeing', with stem Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: φευγ- . The present system (imperfect and present tenses) of this verb Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''φεύγ'''ω has an added ε epsilon as a progressive marker. The aorist and other tenses reflect the true stem Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: φυγ- .
Other strong aorists are Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἦλθον 'I came', Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔλαβον 'I took', Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: εἶπον 'I said', Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔφαγον 'I ate'; and in the middle voice Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐγενόμην 'I became' and Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἀφικόμην 'I arrived'.
Many verbs have an aorist without the sigma markers and characteristic endings of the regular aorist. Typically these verbs have present progressive markers added to the stem in the present system, so that the basic stem is used in the aorist and in the other aspects. One example is the verb Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: βαίνω, "I go", which becomes Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔβην .
However, by no means all Ancient Greek verbs are as regular in their principal parts as Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: παιδεύω . For example, the verb Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: λαμβάνω "I take" has the following parts:[20]
I take, I will take, I took, I have taken, I have been taken, I was taken
As can be seen, the stems used (Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: λαμβάν-, λήφ-, λαβ-, λήφ-) etc. vary from tense to tense. They all come from the same root, but the stem used in the present tense, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: λαμβάνω, has an extra Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: μ and Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: αν as a progressive tense marker; in the other tenses the vowel in the root varies between Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: α and Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: η ; and the final consonant, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: β, changes by assimilation to Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ψ or Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: μ, or by aspiration to Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: φ .
The verb (Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἄγω) "I lead" goes:
I lead, I will lead, I led, I have led, I have been led, I was led
Both of the above verbs have a "strong aorist" or "2nd aorist" ending in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ον rather than the usual Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -σα, and the perfect tense has an aspirated consonant Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: φ, χ before the ending instead of Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: κ .
The tenses of Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: δίδωμι "I give" are as follows:
I give, I will give, I gave, I have given, I have been given (to someone), I was given (to someone)
The aorist of this verb is irregular, since it ends in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: κα . However, this Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: κ is found only in the singular, and disappears in the plural, e.g. 3rd Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔδοσαν "they gave". The verbs Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''τίθημι''' "I put" and Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ἵημι''' "I send" are similar, with aorists Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔθηκα 3rd Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔθεσαν and Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἧκα 3rd Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: εἷσαν respectively.
However, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἵστημι "I stand (something)" does not follow this pattern and has a different aorist:
I stand (something), I will stand (something), I stood (something)/I stood, I have stood/am standing, I stand, I stood/was stood
The present stems of three of these verbs Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: δίδωμι, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: τίθημι and Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἵστημι are reduplicated as a progressive marker, meaning that the true stems Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: δο-, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: θε-, and Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: στα- were doubled up in the present as Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: δίδω-, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: τίθη-, and Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἵστη- (originally σίστη-) .
Some verbs employ suppletion in their inflection: that is, they use different stems ‒ derived from originally different verbs ‒ for the different tenses (similar to English verbs "am, was, been" and "go, went, gone", or French “French: [[Suppletion#To go|aller, je vais, j'irai]]”). For example, the verb Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''φέρω''' "I bring, I bear" has the following principal parts using stems derived from three originally different verbs:
I bring, I will bring, I brought, I have brought, I have been brought, I was brought
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ὁράω''' "I see" is another verb made from stems from three different roots, namely Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὁρά, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὀπ and Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἰδ (the last of these, which was originally pronounced Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ϝιδ-|italic=no (Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: wid-), is related to the root of the Latin verb Latin: video):
I see, I will see, I saw, I have seen, I have been seen, I was seen
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ἔρχομαι''' "I come" or "I go" is also irregular. This verb has only four principal parts, since there is no passive:
I come/go, I will come/go, I came/went, I have come/gone
This verb is made more complex by the fact that in Attic Greek (that is, the dialect of most of the major classical authors), the present tense (apart from the indicative mood), imperfect tense, and future are usually replaced by parts of the irregular verb Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''εἶμι''' "I (will) go":[21] The indicative of Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: εἶμι is generally used with future significance in the classical period ("I will go") but the other parts such as the infinitive Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἰέναι "to go" are not future in meaning.
The three past tenses (imperfect, aorist, and pluperfect), in the classical period, are made by adding a prefix Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐ- (e-), called an "augment", on the beginning of the verb.[22] Thus from Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: γράφω "I write" are made:
This past-tense augment is found only in the indicative mood, not in the subjunctive, infinitive, participle, or other parts of the verb.
When a verb starts with a vowel, the augment usually merges with the vowel to make a long vowel. Thus pronounced as //e// + pronounced as //a// > /ē/, pronounced as //e// + pronounced as //e// > /ē/ (sometimes pronounced as //ei//), pronounced as //e// + pronounced as //i// > /ī/, pronounced as //e// + pronounced as //o// > /ō/ and so on:
When a verb starts with a prepositional prefix, the augment usually goes after the prefix (although there are some verbs where it goes before the prefix, or even in both places):
In Homer, and occasionally in Herodotus, the augment is sometimes omitted.
The perfect tense is formed by repeating the first consonant of the stem with the vowel Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ε . This is known as "reduplication":[26]
When the first consonant of the verb is aspirated (Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: θ, φ, χ), the reduplication is made with the equivalent unaspirated consonant (Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: τ, π, κ) :
When the verb starts with a vowel, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ζ or with a combination of consonants such as Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: γν or Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: στρ, instead of reduplication an augment is used:
More complex kinds of reduplication are found in:
Unlike the past-tense augment, this reduplication or perfect-tense augment is found in every part of the perfect tense, including the infinitive and participles.
The meanings of the tenses are as follows:
The present tense (Greek Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐνεστώς "standing within") can be imperfective or perfective, and be translated "I do (now)", "I do (regularly)", "I am doing (now)":[27]
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ὄμνῡμι''' πάντας θεούς.[28]
.
I swear by all the gods!
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: τὸν ἄνδρα '''ὁρῶ'''.[29]
I see the man!
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ᾱ̓εὶ ταὐτὰ '''λέγεις''', ὦ Σώκρατες.[30]
You are always saying the same things, Socrates!
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: “ὦ Σώκρατες,” ἔφη, “ἐγρήγορας ἢ '''καθεύδεις''';”[31]
"O Socrates", he said, "have you woken up, or are you sleeping?"
The present tense is frequently used in historical narrative, especially to describe exciting moments:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ῑ̔́ετο''' ἐπ’ αὐτὸν καὶ '''τιτρώσκει'''.[32]
He hurls himself at him and wounds him.
The imperfect tense (Greek Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: παρατατικός "for prolonging", from Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: παρατείνω "prolong") is used in the indicative mood only. It often indicates a continuing situation in the past, rather than an event. It can be translated as "was doing", "used to do", "would do", etc., referring to either a progressive, habitual, or continual situation:[33]
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὁ λοχαγὸς ᾔδει ὅπου '''ἔκειτο''' ἡ ἐπιστολή.[34]
The captain knew where the letter was lying.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ἐστρατοπεδεύοντο''' ἑκάστοτε ἀπέχοντες ἀλλήλων παρασάγγην καὶ πλέον.[35]
Every night the (two armies) would camp a parasang or more apart from each other.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ταῦτα πολὺν χρόνον οὕτως '''ἐγίγνετο'''[36]
These things carried on like this for long time.
Often "began doing" is a possible translation:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: συμβαλόντες τᾱ̀ς ἀσπίδας '''ἐωθοῦντο''', '''ἐμάχοντο''', '''ἀπέκτεινον''', '''ἀπέθνῃσκον'''.[37]
Throwing together their shields, they began shoving, fighting, killing, and dying.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: μετὰ τὸ δεῖπνον τὸ παιδίον '''ἐβόα'''.[38]
After dinner the baby began crying.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐπειδὴ δὲ ἕως ἐγένετο, '''διέβαινον''' τὴν γέφῡραν.[39]
And when dawn came, they began crossing the bridge.
As noted above, the imperfect can also mean "had been doing", referring to a situation which existed earlier than the time of the main verb:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἀπέστειλαν τὰς ναῦς ᾱ̔́σπερ '''παρεσκευάζοντο'''.[40]
They sent off the ships which they had been preparing.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: εἰσήγαγον ἰᾱτρὸν ᾧ πολλὰ ἔτη '''ἐχρώμην'''.[41]
I brought in a doctor that I had been using for many years.
However, although the imperfect usually describes a situation, it is often used in narrative where English would use a simple past, especially with verbs meaning "send", "go", "say", and "order":
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐς τᾱ̀ς Ἀθήνᾱς ἄγγελον '''ἔπεμπον'''.[42]
They sent off a messenger to Athens.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: Μίνδαρος κατιδὼν τὴν μάχην ... '''ἐβοήθει'''.[43]
Mindaros, seeing the battle from afar, set off to help.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ἐκέλευον''' συνδειπνεῖν ... '''ἐδειπνοῦμεν''' ... ἀπιὼν '''ᾤχετο''' ... '''ἐκάθευδον'''.[44]
I invited him to join me for dinner ... we sat down to dinner ... he went away ... I went to sleep.
The distinction between imperfect and aorist in the above examples can be seen not so much in terms of perfectivity vs. imperfectivity, as in terms of telicity vs. atelicity.[45] The aorist Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐδειπνήσαμεν would mean "we finished dinner" and would be a telic verb, implying that the action was carried through to its end, whereas the imperfect Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐδειπνοῦμεν would mean "we began eating dinner" and would be atelic, implying that the action was started but not necessarily completed. Similarly the aorist Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔπεισα means "I successfully persuaded", whereas the imperfect Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔπειθον means "I urged" or "I attempted to persuade":
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ἔπειθον''' ἀποτρέπεσθαι· οἱ δ’ οὐχ ὑπήκουον.[46]
They urged them to turn back, but they wouldn't listen.
Another meaning of the imperfect indicative is to refer to unreal (counterfactual) situations in present or past time. To give the meaning "would", the particle Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἄν is added:[47]
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ταῦτα δὲ οὐκ ἂν '''ἐδύναντο''' ποιεῖν, εἰ μὴ διαίτῃ μετρίᾳ '''ἐχρῶντο'''.[48]
They wouldn't be able to do this if they weren't following a temperate diet.
The future tense (Greek Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: μέλλων "going to be") describes an event or a state of affairs that will happen in the future. For example, it can be something promised or predicted:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ἄξω''' ῡ̔μᾶς εἰς τὴν Τρῳάδα. [49]
I will lead you to the Troad.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ἥξω''' παρὰ σὲ αὔριον, ἐὰν θεὸς ἐθέλῃ. [50]
I will come to see you tomorrow, if God is willing.
It can also be used after Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὅπως for strong commands and prohibitions:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὅπως ταῦτα μηδεὶς ἀνθρώπων '''πεύσεται'''. [51]
Make sure that no one finds out about these things.
See main article: article and Aorist (Ancient Greek). The aorist tense (Greek "unbounded" or "indefinite") describes a finished action in the past.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''κατέβην''' χθὲς εἰς Πειραιᾶ.[52]
I went down yesterday to Piraeus.
Often in narrative it is found mixed with present and imperfect tenses:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ἧκεν''' ἐκείνη καὶ τὴν θύρᾱν '''ἀνέῳξεν'''.[53]
She came back (imperfect) and opened (aorist) the door.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ἐφύλαττεν''' ἕως '''ἐξηῦρεν''' ὅ τι εἴη τὸ αἴτιον.[54]
She kept watch (imperfect) until she found out (aorist) what the cause was.
Often an aorist is equivalent to an English pluperfect tense, for example after Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐπεί "when" or in relative clauses in sentences such as the following:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐπεὶ δ’ '''ἐδείπνησαν''', ἐξῆγε τὸ στράτευμα.[55]
When they had dined, he led the army out.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐκέλευσέ με τὴν ἐπιστολὴν ἣν '''ἔγραψα''' δοῦναι.[56]
He ordered me to give him the letter which I had written.
Another meaning of the aorist indicative is to refer to unreal (counterfactual) events in past time. To give the meaning "would", the particle Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἄν is added:[57]
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: οὐκ '''ἂν ἐποίησεν''' ταῦτα, εἰ μὴ ἐγὼ αὐτὸν '''ἐκέλευσα'''.[58]
He would not have done this, if I had not ordered him.
The perfect tense (Greek Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: παρακείμενος "lying nearby"), much as the English perfect tense, often describes a recent event of which the present result is important:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ἀκηκόατε''', '''ἑωράκατε'''· δικάζετε[59]
You have heard and you have seen (the evidence); now make your decision.
It can also, like the English perfect, be used experientially, of something that has often or always happened in the past:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὑμεῖς ἐμοῦ πολλάκις '''ἀκηκόατε''' λέγοντος[60]
You have often heard me speaking.
In some verbs the perfect tense can be translated by a present tense in English, e.g. Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: μέμνημαι "I remember", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἕστηκα "I am standing"/"I stand", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: κέκτημαι "I possess", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: οἶδα "I know":
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἡ στήλη παρ’ ᾗ '''ἕστηκας''' χιλίᾱς δραχμᾱ̀ς κελεύει ὀφείλειν[61]
The inscribed stone beside which you are standing orders that you owe 1000 drachmas.
The pluperfect tense (Greek Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὑπερσυντέλικος "more than completed"), like the Imperfect, is used only in the indicative mood. It refers to a situation that existed due to events that had taken place at an earlier time:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: μάλα ἤχθοντο ὅτι οἱ Ἕλληνες '''ἐπεφεύγεσαν'''· ὃ οὔπω πρόσθεν '''ἐπεποιήκεσαν'''.[62]
They were very annoyed that the Greeks had fled – something which they had never done before.
However, the pluperfect is much less frequently used in Greek than in English, since after conjunctions such as Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐπεί "when", usually the aorist is used:[63]
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐπεὶ δ’ '''ἐδείπνησαν''', ἐξῆγε τὸ στράτευμα.[64]
And when they had had dinner (aorist), he began leading out the army.
The future perfect tense (Greek Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: συντελεσμένος μέλλων "going to be completed") is rarely used. In the active voice only two verbs (Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: τεθνήξω "I will be dead" and Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἑστήξω "I will be standing") have a separate form for the future perfect tense, though a compound ("periphrastic") tense can be made with a perfect participle, e.g Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐγνωκὼς ἔσται [65] "he is going to have realised"; but even this is extremely rare. It is more common in the passive.[66] It describes a future state that will result from a finished action:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: φίλος ἡμῖν οὐδεὶς '''λελείψεται'''.[67]
No friend will have been left for us.
There are four moods (Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐγκλίσεις "bendings" or "leanings"):
(Greek Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὁριστική "for defining", from Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὁρίζω "I define").
The indicative is the form of the verb used for ordinary statements of fact:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ἀπέκτεινε''' τὸν ἄνδρα.[68]
.
He killed the man.
To make the negative of the indicative, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: οὐ or, before a vowel, Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: οὐκ is added before the verb:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''οὐκ ἐδύνατο''' καθεύδειν.[69]
.
He was not able to sleep.
The imperfect and aorist indicative can also sometimes refer to unreal (counterfactual) situations in present or past time ("would be doing", "should be doing", "would have done" etc.). (For further examples see above.)
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: τί σιγᾷς; οὐκ '''ἐχρῆν''' σιγᾶν.[70]
.
Why are you keeping quiet? You should not be keeping quiet.
See main article: article and Subjunctive (Ancient Greek). (Greek Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὑποτακτική "for arranging underneath", from Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὑποτάσσω "I arrange underneath").
The subjunctive generally has the letters Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ω or Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: η in the ending.
It is often used when the meaning is may, for example in purpose clauses, especially those referring to present or future time:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: λέγε, ἵνα '''ἀκούω'''[71]
Speak, so that I may hear (so that I may be hearing).
The above example uses the present subjunctive, but the aorist subjunctive is equally correct, with a slightly different shade of meaning:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: λέγε, ἵνα '''ἀκούσω'''[72]
Speak, so that I may hear (so that I may hear (straightaway)).
Another very common use of the subjunctive is in indefinite subordinate clauses following a conjunction such as Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐᾱ́ν "if (it may be that)", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὅταν "whenever", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὃς ἄν "whoever", Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἕως ἄν "until such time as" etc., referring to present or future time. When used with the subjunctive, such conjunctions are always joined with the particle ἄν (an):
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: λέγε, ἕως ἂν οἴκαδε ὥρᾱ '''ᾖ''' ἀπιέναι[73]
Speak, until it is time to go home.
The subjunctive can also be used of something that it is suggested "should" happen, for example in exhortations, deliberative questions, and negative commands such as the following:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἄγε νῡν, '''ἴωμεν'''[74]
Come now, let's go.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''εἴπωμεν''' ἢ '''σῑγῶμεν''';[75]
Should we speak (aorist) or should we remain silent (present)?
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: μὴ '''θαυμάσῃς'''.[76]
.
Don't be surprised.
The negative of the subjunctive, as in the above example, is μὴ (mē).
See main article: article and Optative (Ancient Greek).
(Greek: Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: εὐκτική "for wishing", from Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: εὔχομαι "I wish").
The optative mood can generally be recognised because it has the letters οι (oi), αι (ai) or ει (ei) in the ending.
One use of the optative mood is in conditional sentences referring to a hypothetical situation in the future. The particle ἄν (an) is added in the main clause to give the meaning "would":
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἡδέως ἂν '''λάβοιμι''', εἰ '''διδοίη'''[77]
I would gladly take, if he were to give.
However, the optative mood is not used in sentences referring to a hypothetical situation in the present or past; in such sentences the optative is replaced by the imperfect, aorist, or pluperfect indicative, with Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἄν (an) in the main clause.
The optative mood is also used in reported speech in past time:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: εἶπεν ὅτι θῦσαί τι '''βούλοιτο'''[78]
He said that he wished to make a sacrifice.
Just as the subjunctive is used after a conjunction meaning "whenever", "until such time as" etc. referring to present or future time, so the optative can be used in similar clauses referring to repeated events in past time. However, in this case the particle ἄν (an) is not added to the conjunction:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐθήρευεν, ὁπότε γυμνάσαι '''βούλοιτο''' ἑαυτόν.[79]
He used to hunt, whenever he wished to take exercise.
The optative can also be used for wishes:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ὃ μὴ '''γένοιτο'''.[80]
Which may it not happen!
The optative can also be used in purpose clauses in past time, and after verbs of fearing in past time:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐκάλεσε γάρ τις αὐτὸν ὅπως '''ἴδοι''' τὰ ἱερά.[81]
Someone had summoned him so that he could see the sacrificial entrails.
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔδεισαν οἱ Ἕλληνες αὐτὸν μὴ τύραννος '''γένοιτο'''.[82]
The Greeks were afraid of him in case he might become a tyrant.
However, some authors, such as Herodotus and Thucydides, prefer to use the subjunctive in such clauses.
(Greek: Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: προστακτική "for commanding", from "I command").
The present imperative is used for general commands:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: τοὺς μὲν θεοὺς '''φοβοῦ''', τοὺς δὲ γονεῖς '''τῑ́μᾱ'''.[83]
.
Fear the gods, and honour your parents.
The aorist imperative is used when the speaker wishes something done at once:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''δότε''' μοι ξίφος ὅπως τάχιστα.[84]
.
Give me a sword as quickly as possible!
It is also possible in Greek to have a 3rd person imperative, as in the following examples:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ἀπαγέτω''' τις αὐτὴν οἴκαδε.[85]
Someone take her away home (at once).
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: θεοὶ ἡμῖν μάρτυρες '''ἔστων'''.[86]
.
The gods be witnesses for us.
The imperative mood can also be used in the perfect tense, as the following example shows:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: κέντρῳ τῷ Α, διαστήματι τῷ ΑΒ, '''γεγράφθω''' κύκλος.[87]
Let a circle have been drawn with centre A, radius AB.
See also: Infinitive (Ancient Greek). (Greek: Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἀπαρέμφατος aparémphatos "not indicated").
The infinitive is found in all three voices, and in the present, aorist, future, and perfect tenses. The four infinitives of the active voice of the verb λύω (lúō) "I free" are as follows:
Many commonly used verbs, instead of an aorist infinitive in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -σαι (-sai), have one ending in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -εῖν (-eîn) (with a circumflex accent) instead. This is called the "strong aorist" or "2nd aorist":
Root aorists take a different infinitive:
Contracting verbs have a present infinitive ending in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ᾶν (-ân), Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -εῖν (-eîn) or Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -οῦν (-oûn):
Verbs ending in -μι (-mi), such as Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: δίδωμι (dídōmi) "I give", have present and aorist infinitives which end in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ναι (-nai):
The irregular verb Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: οἶδα (oîda) "I know" also has an infinitive ending in Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: -ναι (-nai):
The infinitive is often used after verbs with meanings such as "he wanted", "he ordered", "he tried", "it is necessary", "he is able" etc. much as in English:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐκέλευσεν αὐτοὺς '''ἀπελθεῖν'''.[88]
He ordered them to go aside (aorist).
It can also be used for indirect speech after certain verbs such as Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: φημί "I say" or Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: νομίζω "I think". The subject of the infinitive, if it is different from the subject of the main verb, is put in the accusative case. When the statement is negative, the word Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: οὐ (ou) "not" goes in front of Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: φημί .
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: οὔ φᾱσιν '''εἶναι''' ἄλλην ὁδόν.[89]
"They say there is no other way" ("they do not say there to be another way")
In Greek an infinitive is also often used with the neuter definite article in various constructions. In this case it is similar in meaning to the English verbal noun in "-ing":
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐπέσχομεν τοῦ '''δακρύειν'''[90]
.
We refrained from weeping.
See also: Participle (Ancient Greek). Participles were given the name Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: μετοχή metokhḗ "sharing" by Greek grammarians, because they share the characteristics of both adjectives and verbs. Like adjectives, they have gender, case, and number and agree with the nouns that they modify, and, like verbs, they have tense and voice.
Participles exist for all three voices in the present, aorist, future, and perfect tenses. Typical endings for the,, and are as follows:
Active:
Middle and Passive:
Participles are very frequently used in Greek. For example, in the following sentence from Plato's Phaedo there are six participles:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: καὶ ὁ παῖς '''ἐξελθὼν''' καὶ συχνὸν χρόνον '''διατρῑ́ψᾱς''' ἧκεν '''ἄγων''' τὸν '''μέλλοντα''' δώσειν τὸ φάρμακον, ἐν κύλικι '''φέροντα''' '''τετριμμένον'''.[91]
And the boy, after going out and after spending a long time, came back leading the one intending to give the poison, (who was) carrying it already pounded in a cup.
This example is analysed in the paragraphs below.
An aorist participle, such as Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐξελθών "after going out", usually refers to an action which preceded the time of the main verb:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''ἐξελθὼν''' ἧκεν.
.
After going out he came back.
A present participle, such as Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἄγων "leading", is used to refer to an action which is taking place simultaneously with the main verb:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἧκεν '''ἄγων''' τὸν (ἄνθρωπον).
.
He came back leading the man.
A perfect participle, such as Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: τετριμμένον "pounded", generally refers to the state that something is in as a result of an earlier action, e.g. "fallen", "dead", "broken" etc., rather than to the action itself:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: τὸ φάρμακον ἐν κύλικι φέροντα '''τετριμμένον'''.
Carrying the poison already pounded in a cup.
A future participle refers to an action which is to take place after the time of the main verb, and is often used to indicate purpose:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: εἰς Ἀθήνας ἔπλευσε ταῦτα '''ἐξαγγελῶν'''[92]
He sailed to Athens to report (going to report) these things.
Because it is an adjective as well as a verb, a participle has to agree in case, gender, and number with the noun it refers to. Thus in the first example above:
A participle frequently describes the circumstances in which another action took place. Often it is translated with "-ing", e.g. Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἄγων "leading" in the example above.
In some sentences it can be translated with a clause beginning "when" or "since":
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: '''κατιδὼν''' τὴν μάχην ... ἐβοήθει[93]
When he saw the battle he went to help.
Another frequent use is in a construction known as the "genitive absolute", when the participle and its subject are placed in the genitive case. This construction is used when the participle refers to someone or something who is not the subject, object, or indirect object of the main verb:
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἐνῑ́κησαν Λακεδαιμόνιοι '''ἡγουμένου''' Ἀγησανδρίδου[94]
The Spartans won, with Agesandridas leading them.
But if the verb is an impersonal one, it is put in the accusative, e.g. Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔξον "it being possible".
Sometimes a participle is used with the article, in which case it can often be translated with "who":
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: τὸν '''μέλλοντα''' δώσειν τὸ φάρμακον.
.
The (man who was) going to give the poison.
As well as being used in sentences such as the above, the participle can be used following verbs with meanings such as "I know", "I notice", "I happen (to be)", "I hear (that)" and so on. This use is known as the "supplementary" participle.[95]
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἤκουσε Κῦρον ἐν Κιλικίᾱͅ '''ὄντα'''.[96]
He heard that Cyrus was in Cilicia (he heard Cyrus being in Cilicia).
Greek, Ancient (to 1453);: ἔτυχε καὶ ὁ Ἀλκιβιάδης '''παρών'''.[97]
.
Alcibiades also happened to be present (chanced being present).