American Jews Explained

Group:American Jews
Pop1:7,500,000
Pop2: 300,000[1]
Population:7,100,000–7,700,000
Regions:New York City, New Jersey, New York metropolitan area, Greater Los Angeles, Baltimore–Washington, Chicagoland, San Francisco Bay Area, Cleveland, Miami, Philadelphia area, Atlanta Area, Greater Boston Area, Saint Louis Area
Rels:Judaism (35% Reformist, 18% Conservative, 11% Orthodox, 6% others)
Secular (30% atheist, agnostic, etc.)[2]
Related Groups:Israeli Americans

American Jews or Jewish Americans are American citizens who are Jewish, whether by culture, ethnicity, or religion.[3] According to a 2020 poll conducted by Pew Research, approximately two thirds of American Jews identify as Ashkenazi, 3% identify as Sephardic, and 1% identify as Mizrahi. An additional 6% identify as some combination of the three categories.

During the colonial era, Sephardic Jews who arrived via Portugal represented the bulk of America's then-small Jewish population. While their descendants are a minority nowadays, they represent the remainder of those original American Jews along with an array of other Jewish communities, including more recent Sephardi Jews, Mizrahi Jews, Beta Israel-Ethiopian Jews, various other Jewish ethnic groups, as well as a smaller number of converts to Judaism. The American Jewish community manifests a wide range of Jewish cultural traditions, encompassing the full spectrum of Jewish religious observance.

Depending on religious definitions and varying population data, the United States has the largest or second largest Jewish community in the world, after Israel. As of 2020, the American Jewish population is estimated at 7.5 million people, accounting for 2.4% of the total US population. This includes 4.2 million adults who identify their religion as Jewish, 1.5 million Jewish adults who identify with no religion, and 1.8 million Jewish children.[4] It is estimated that up to 15,000,000 Americans are part of the "enlarged" American Jewish population, accounting for 4.5% of the total US population, consisting of those who have at least one Jewish grandparent and would be eligible for Israeli citizenship under the Law of Return.[5]

History

See main article: History of the Jews in the United States. Jews were present in the Thirteen Colonies since the mid-17th century.[6] [7] However, they were few in number, with at most 200 to 300 having arrived by 1700.[8] Those early arrivals were mostly Sephardi Jewish immigrants, of Western Sephardic (also known as Spanish and Portuguese Jewish) ancestry,[9] but by 1720, Ashkenazi Jews from diaspora communities in Central and Eastern Europe predominated.[8]

For the first time, the English Plantation Act 1740 permitted Jews to become British citizens and emigrate to the colonies. The first famous Jew in U.S. history was Chaim Salomon, a Polish-born Jew who emigrated to New York and played an important role in the American Revolution. He was a successful financier who supported the patriotic cause and helped raise most of the money needed to finance the American Revolution.[10]

Despite the fact that some of them were denied the right to vote or hold office in local jurisdictions, Sephardi Jews became active in community affairs in the 1790s, after they were granted political equality in the five states where they were most numerous.[11] Until about 1830, Charleston, South Carolina had more Jews than anywhere else in North America. Large-scale Jewish immigration commenced in the 19th century, when, by mid-century, many German Jews had arrived, migrating to the United States in large numbers due to antisemitic laws and restrictions in their countries of birth.[12] They primarily became merchants and shop-owners. Gradually early Jewish arrivals from the east coast would travel westward, and in the fall of 1819 the first Jewish religious services west of the Appalachian Range were conducted during the High Holidays in Cincinnati, the oldest Jewish community in the Midwest. Gradually the Cincinnati Jewish community would adopt novel practices under the leadership Rabbi Isaac Meyer Wise, the father of Reform Judaism in the United States,[13] such as the inclusion of women in minyan.[14] A large community grew in the region with the arrival of German and Lithuanian Jews in the latter half of the 1800s, leading to the establishment of Manischewitz, one of the largest producers of American kosher products and now based in New Jersey, and the oldest continuously published Jewish newspaper in the United States, and second-oldest continuous published in the world, The American Israelite, established in 1854 and still extant in Cincinnati.[15] By 1880 there were approximately 250,000 Jews in the United States, many of them being the educated, and largely secular, German Jews, although a minority population of the older Sephardi Jewish families remained influential.

Jewish migration to the United States increased dramatically in the early 1880s, as a result of persecution and economic difficulties in parts of Eastern Europe. Most of these new immigrants were Yiddish-speaking Ashkenazi Jews, most of whom arrived from poor diaspora communities of the Russian Empire and the Pale of Settlement, located in modern-day Poland, Lithuania, Belarus, Ukraine, and Moldova. During the same period, great numbers of Ashkenazic Jews also arrived from Galicia, at that time the most impoverished region of the Austro-Hungarian Empire with a heavy Jewish urban population, driven out mainly by economic reasons. Many Jews also emigrated from Romania. Over 2,000,000 Jews landed between the late 19th century and 1924 when the Immigration Act of 1924 restricted immigration. Most settled in the New York metropolitan area, establishing the world's major concentrations of the Jewish population. In 1915, the circulation of the daily Yiddish newspapers was half a million in New York City alone, and 600,000 nationally. In addition, thousands more subscribed to the numerous weekly papers and the many magazines in Yiddish.[16]

At the beginning of the 20th century, these newly arrived Jews built support networks consisting of many small synagogues and Landsmanshaften (German and Yiddish for "Countryman Associations") for Jews from the same town or village. American Jewish writers of the time urged assimilation and integration into the wider American culture, and Jews quickly became part of American life. Approximately 500,000 American Jews (or half of all Jewish males between 18 and 50) fought in World War II, and after the war younger families joined the new trend of suburbanization. There, Jews became increasingly assimilated and demonstrated rising intermarriage. The suburbs facilitated the formation of new centers, as Jewish school enrollment more than doubled between the end of World War II and the mid-1950s, while synagogue affiliation jumped from 20% in 1930 to 60% in 1960; the fastest growth came in Reform and, especially, Conservative congregations.[17] More recent waves of Jewish emigration from Russia and other regions have largely joined the mainstream American Jewish community.

Americans of Jewish descent have been successful in many fields and aspects over the years.[18] [19] The Jewish community in America has gone from being part of the lower class of society, with numerous employments barred to them,[20] to being a group with a high concentrations in members of the academia and a per capita income higher than the average in the United States.[21] [22] [23]

Household income of American Jews – 2014[24] !< $30,000!$30,000–49,999!$50,000–99,999!$100,000+
16%15%24%44%

Self-identity

Scholars debate whether the historical experience of Jews in the United States has been such a unique experience as to validate American exceptionalism.[25]

Korelitz (1996) shows how American Jews during the late 19th and early 20th centuries abandoned a racial definition of Jewishness in favor of one that embraced ethnicity. The key to understanding this transition from a racial self-definition to a cultural or ethnic one can be found in the Menorah Journal between 1915 and 1925. During this time contributors to the Menorah promoted a cultural, rather than a racial, religious, or other views of Jewishness as a means to define Jews in a world that threatened to overwhelm and absorb Jewish uniqueness. The journal represented the ideals of the menorah movement established by Horace M. Kallen and others to promote a revival in Jewish cultural identity and combat the idea of race as a means to define or identify peoples.[26]

Siporin (1990) uses the family folklore of ethnic Jews to their collective history and its transformation into a historical art form. They tell us how Jews have survived being uprooted and transformed. Many immigrant narratives bear a theme of the arbitrary nature of fate and the reduced state of immigrants in a new culture. By contrast, ethnic family narratives tend to show the ethnicity more in charge of his life, and perhaps in danger of losing his Jewishness altogether. Some stories show how a family member successfully negotiated the conflict between ethnic and American identities.[27]

After 1960, memories of the Holocaust, together with the Six-Day War in 1967 had major impacts on fashioning Jewish ethnic identity. Some have argued that the Holocaust highlighted for Jews the importance of their ethnic identity at a time when other minorities were asserting their own.[28] [29] [30]

Politics

See main article: Jewish views and involvement in U.S. politics.

Jewish vote to the Democratic Party in Presidential elections since 1916
Election
year		Candidate of the
Democratic Party		% of
Jewish vote to the
Democratic Party		Result of the
Democratic Party
1916 Woodrow Wilson55
1920 James M. Cox19
1924 John W. Davis51
1928 Al Smith72
1932 Franklin D. Roosevelt82
1936 85
1940 90
1944 90
1948 Harry Truman75
1952 Adlai Stevenson64
1956 60
1960 John F. Kennedy82
1964 Lyndon B. Johnson90
1968 Hubert Humphrey81
1972 George McGovern65
1976 Jimmy Carter71
1980 45
1984 Walter Mondale67
1988 Michael Dukakis64
1992 Bill Clinton80
1996 78
2000 Al Gore79
2004 John Kerry76
2008 Barack Obama78
2012 69
2016 Hillary Clinton71[31]
2020 Joe Biden69[32]
Jewish vote to the Republican Party in Presidential elections since 1916
Election
year		Candidate of the
Republican Party		% of
Jewish vote to the
Republican Party		Result of the
Republican Party
1916 Charles E. Hughes45
1920 Warren G. Harding43
1924 Calvin Coolidge27
1928 Herbert Hoover28
1932 18
1936 Alf Landon15
1940 Wendell Willkie10
1944 Thomas Dewey10
1948 10
1952 Dwight D. Eisenhower36
1956 40
1960 Richard Nixon18
1964 Barry Goldwater10
1968 Richard Nixon17
1972 35
1976 Gerald Ford27
1980 Ronald Reagan39
1984 31
1988 George H. W. Bush35
1992 11
1996 Bob Dole16
2000 George W. Bush19
2004 24
2008 John McCain22
2012 Mitt Romney30
2016 Donald Trump24
2020 30
In New York City, while the German-Jewish community was well established 'uptown', the more numerous Jews who migrated from Eastern Europe faced tension 'downtown' with Irish and German Catholic neighbors, especially the Irish Catholics who controlled Democratic Party Politics[33] at the time. Jews successfully established themselves in the garment trades and in the needle unions in New York. By the 1930s they were a major political factor in New York, with strong support for the most liberal programs of the New Deal. They continued as a major element of the New Deal Coalition, giving special support to the Civil Rights Movement. By the mid-1960s, however, the Black Power movement caused a growing separation between blacks and Jews, though both groups remained solidly in the Democratic camp.[34]

While earlier Jewish immigrants from Germany tended to be politically conservative, the wave of Jews from Eastern Europe starting in the early 1880s were generally more liberal or left-wing and became the political majority.[35] Many came to America with experience in the socialist, anarchist and communist movements as well as the Labor Bund, emanating from Eastern Europe. Many Jews rose to leadership positions in the early 20th century American labor movement and helped to found unions that played a major role in left-wing politics and, after 1936, in Democratic Party politics.[35]

Although American Jews generally leaned Republican in the second half of the 19th century, the majority has voted Democratic since at least 1916, when they voted 55% for Woodrow Wilson.[36]

With the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt, American Jews voted more solidly Democratic. They voted 90% for Roosevelt in the elections of 1940, and 1944, representing the highest of support, equaled only once since. In the election of 1948, Jewish support for Democrat Harry S. Truman dropped to 75%, with 15% supporting the new Progressive Party.[36] As a result of lobbying, and hoping to better compete for the Jewish vote, both major party platforms had included a pro-Zionist plank since 1944,[37] [38] and supported the creation of a Jewish state; it had little apparent effect however, with 90% still voting other-than-Republican. In every election since, except for 1980, no Democratic presidential candidate has won with less than 67% of the Jewish vote. (In 1980, Carter obtained 45% of the Jewish vote. See below.)

During the 1952 and 1956 elections, Jewish voters cast 60% or more of their votes for Democrat Adlai Stevenson, while General Eisenhower garnered 40% of the Jewish vote for his reelection, the best showing to date for the Republicans since Warren G. Harding's 43% in 1920.[36] In 1960, 83% voted for Democrat John F. Kennedy against Richard Nixon, and in 1964, 90% of American Jews voted for Lyndon Johnson, over his Republican opponent, arch-conservative Barry Goldwater. Hubert Humphrey garnered 81% of the Jewish vote in the 1968 elections in his losing bid for president against Richard Nixon.[36]

During the Nixon re-election campaign of 1972, Jewish voters were apprehensive about George McGovern and only favored the Democrat by 65%, while Nixon more than doubled Republican Jewish support to 35%. In the election of 1976, Jewish voters supported Democrat Jimmy Carter by 71% over incumbent president Gerald Ford's 27%, but during the Carter re-election campaign of 1980, Jewish voters greatly abandoned the Democrat, with only 45% support, while Republican winner Ronald Reagan garnered 39%, and 14% went to independent (former Republican) John Anderson.[36]

During the Reagan re-election campaign of 1984, the Republican retained 31% of the Jewish vote, while 67% voted for Democrat Walter Mondale. The 1988 election saw Jewish voters favor Democrat Michael Dukakis by 64%, while George H. W. Bush polled a respectable 35%, but during Bush's re-election attempt in 1992, his Jewish support dropped to just 11%, with 80% voting for Bill Clinton and 9% going to independent Ross Perot. Clinton's re-election campaign in 1996 maintained high Jewish support at 78%, with 16% supporting Bob Dole and 3% for Perot.[36]

In the 2000 presidential election, Joe Lieberman became the first American Jew to run for national office on a major-party ticket when he was chosen as Democratic presidential candidate Al Gore's vice-presidential nominee. The elections of 2000 and 2004 saw continued Jewish support for Democrats Al Gore and John Kerry, a Catholic, remain in the high- to mid-70% range, while Republican George W. Bush's re-election in 2004 saw Jewish support rise from 19% to 24%.[39]

In the 2008 presidential election, 78% of Jews voted for Barack Obama, who became the first African American to be elected president.[40] Additionally, 83% of white Jews voted for Obama compared to just 34% of white Protestants and 47% of white Catholics, though 67% of those identifying with another religion and 71% identifying with no religion also voted Obama.[41]

In the February 2016 New Hampshire Democratic Primary, Bernie Sanders became the first Jewish candidate to win a state's presidential primary election.[42]

For congressional and senate races, since 1968, American Jews have voted about 70–80% for Democrats;[43] this support increased to 87% for Democratic House candidates during the 2006 elections.[44]

The first American Jew to serve in the Senate was David Levy Yulee, who was Florida's first Senator, serving 1845–1851 and again 1855–1861.

There were 19 Jews among the 435 U.S. Representatives at the start of the 112th Congress;[45] 26 Democrats and 1 (Eric Cantor) Republican. While many of these Members represented coastal cities and suburbs with significant Jewish populations, others did not (for instance, Kim Schrier of Seattle, Washington; John Yarmuth of Louisville, Kentucky; and David Kustoff and Steve Cohen of Memphis, Tennessee). The total number of Jews serving in the House of Representatives declined from 31 in the 111th Congress.[46] John Adler of New Jersey, Steve Kagan of Wisconsin, Alan Grayson of Florida, and Ron Klein of Florida all lost their re-election bids, Rahm Emanuel resigned to become the President's Chief of Staff; and Paul Hodes of New Hampshire did not run for re-election but instead (unsuccessfully) sought his state's open Senate seat. David Cicilline of Rhode Island was the only Jewish American who was newly elected to the 112th Congress; he had been the Mayor of Providence. The number declined when Jane Harman, Anthony Weiner, and Gabby Giffords resigned during the 112th Congress.

, there were five openly gay men serving in Congress and two are Jewish: Jared Polis of Colorado and David Cicilline of Rhode Island.

In November 2008, Cantor was elected as the House Minority Whip, the first Jewish Republican to be selected for the position.[47] In 2011, he became the first Jewish House Majority Leader. He served as Majority Leader until 2014, when he resigned shortly after his loss in the Republican primary election for his House seat.

In 2013, Pew found that 70% of American Jews identified with or leaned toward the Democratic Party, with just 22% identifying with or leaning toward the Republican Party.[48]

The 114th Congress included 10 Jews[49] among 100 U.S. Senators: nine Democrats (Michael Bennet, Richard Blumenthal, Brian Schatz, Benjamin Cardin, Dianne Feinstein, Jon Ossoff, Jacky Rosen, Charles Schumer, Ron Wyden), and Bernie Sanders, who became a Democrat to run for President but returned to the Senate as an Independent.[50]

In the 118th Congress, there are 28 Jewish U.S. Representatives.[51] 25 are Democrats and the other 3 are Republicans. All 10 Jewish Senators are Democrats.[52]

Additionally, 6 members of President Joe Biden's cabinet are Jewish (Secretary of State Antony Blinken, Attorney General Merrick Garland, DNI Avril Haines, White House Chief of Staff Ron Klain, Homeland Security Secretary Alejandro Mayorkas, and Treasury Secretary Janet Yellen).[53]

Participation in civil rights movements

See also: Jews in the civil rights movement. Members of the American Jewish community have included prominent participants in civil rights movements. In the mid-20th century, there were American Jews who were among the most active participants in the Civil Rights Movement and feminist movements. A number of American Jews have also been active figures in the struggle for gay rights in America.

Joachim Prinz, president of the American Jewish Congress, stated the following when he spoke from the podium at the Lincoln Memorial during the famous March on Washington on August 28, 1963: "As Jews we bring to this great demonstration, in which thousands of us proudly participate, a twofold experience—one of the spirit and one of our history.... From our Jewish historic experience of three and a half thousand years we say: Our ancient history began with slavery and the yearning for freedom. During the Middle Ages my people lived for a thousand years in the ghettos of Europe.... It is for these reasons that it is not merely sympathy and compassion for the black people of America that motivates us. It is, above all and beyond all such sympathies and emotions, a sense of complete identification and solidarity born of our own painful historic experience."[54] [55]

The Holocaust

During the World War II period, the American Jewish community was bitterly and deeply divided and as a result, it was unable to form a united front. Most Jews who had previously emigrated to the United States from Eastern Europe supported Zionism, because they believed that a return to their ancestral homeland was the only solution to the persecution and the genocide which were then occurring across Europe. One important development was the sudden conversion of many American Jewish leaders to Zionism late in the war.[56] The Holocaust was largely ignored by American media as it was happening. Reporters and editors largely did not believe the stories of atrocities which were coming out of Europe.[57]

The Holocaust had a profound impact on the Jewish community in the United States, especially after 1960 as Holocaust education improved, as Jews tried to comprehend what had happened during it, and especially as they tried to commemorate it and grapple with it when they looked to the future. Abraham Joshua Heschel summarized this dilemma when he attempted to understand Auschwitz: "To try to answer is to commit a supreme blasphemy. Israel enables us to bear the agony of Auschwitz without radical despair, to sense a ray [of] God's radiance in the jungles of history."[58]

International affairs

Zionism became a well-organized movement in the U.S. with the involvement of leaders such as Louis Brandeis and the promise of a reconstituted homeland in the Balfour Declaration.[59] Jewish Americans organized large-scale boycotts of German merchandise during the 1930s to protest Nazi Germany. Franklin D. Roosevelt's leftist domestic policies received strong Jewish support in the 1930s and 1940s, as did his anti-Nazi foreign policy and his promotion of the United Nations. Support for political Zionism in this period, although growing in influence, remained a distinctly minority opinion among Jews in the United States until about 1944–45, when the early rumors and reports of the systematic mass murder of the Jews in Nazi-occupied countries became publicly known with the liberation of the Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps. The founding of the modern State of Israel in 1948 and recognition thereof by the American government (following objections by American isolationists) was an indication of both its intrinsic support and its response to learning the horrors of the Holocaust.

This attention was based on a natural affinity toward and support for Israel in the Jewish community. The attention is also because of the ensuing and unresolved conflicts regarding the founding of Israel and the role for the Zionist movement going forward. A lively internal debate commenced, following the Six-Day War. The American Jewish community was divided over whether or not they agreed with the Israeli response; the great majority came to accept the war as necessary.[60] Similar tensions were aroused by the 1977 election of Menachem Begin and the rise of Revisionist policies, the 1982 Lebanon War and the continuing administrative governance of portions of the West Bank territory.[61] Disagreement over Israel's 1993 acceptance of the Oslo Accords caused a further split among American Jews;[62] this mirrored a similar split among Israelis and led to a parallel rift within the pro-Israel lobby, and even ultimately to the United States for its "blind" support of Israel.[62] Abandoning any pretense of unity, both segments began to develop separate advocacy and lobbying organizations. The liberal supporters of the Oslo Accord worked through Americans for Peace Now (APN), Israel Policy Forum (IPF) and other groups friendly to the Labour government in Israel. They tried to assure Congress that American Jewry was behind the Accord and defended the efforts of the administration to help the fledgling Palestinian Authority (PA), including promises of financial aid. In a battle for public opinion, IPF commissioned a number of polls showing widespread support for Oslo among the community.

In opposition to Oslo, an alliance of conservative groups, such as the Zionist Organization of America (ZOA), Americans For a Safe Israel (AFSI), and the Jewish Institute for National Security Affairs (JINSA) tried to counterbalance the power of the liberal Jews. On October 10, 1993, the opponents of the Palestinian-Israeli accord organized at the American Leadership Conference for a Safe Israel, where they warned that Israel was prostrating itself before "an armed thug", and predicted and that the "thirteenth of September is a date that will live in infamy". Some Zionists also criticized, often in harsh language, Prime Minister Yitzhak Rabin and Shimon Peres, his foreign minister and chief architect of the peace accord. With the community so strongly divided, AIPAC and the Presidents Conference, which was tasked with representing the national Jewish consensus, struggled to keep the increasingly antagonistic discourse civil. Reflecting these tensions, Abraham Foxman from the Anti-Defamation League was asked by the conference to apologize for criticizing ZOA's Morton Klein. The conference, which under its organizational guidelines was in charge of moderating communal discourse, reluctantly censured some Orthodox spokespeople for attacking Colette Avital, the Labor-appointed Israeli Consul General in New York and an ardent supporter of that version of a peace process.[63]

Demographics

As of 2020, the American Jewish population is, depending on the method of identification, either the largest in the world, or the second-largest in the world (after Israel). Precise population figures vary depending on whether Jews are accounted for based on halakhic considerations, or secular, political and ancestral identification factors. There were about four million adherents of Judaism in the U.S. as of 2001, approximately 1.4% of the US population. According to the Jewish Agency, for the year 2023 Israel was home to 7.2 million Jews (46% of the world's Jewish population), while the United States contained 6.3 million (40.1%).[64]

According to Gallup and Pew Research Center findings, "at maximum 2.2% of the U.S. adult population has some basis for Jewish self-identification."[65] In 2020, it was estimated by demographers Arnold Dashefsky & Ira M. Sheskin in the American Jewish Yearbook that the American Jewish population totaled 7.15 million, making up 2.17% of the country's 329.5 million inhabitants.[66] In the same year, the American Jewish population was estimated at 7.6 million people, accounting for 2.4% of the total US population, by other organization. This includes 4.9 million adults who identify their religion as Jewish, 1.2 million Jewish adults who identify with no religion, and 1.6 million Jewish children.[67]

The American Jewish Yearbook population survey had placed the number of American Jews at 6.4 million, or approximately 2.1% of the total population. This figure is significantly higher than the previous large scale survey estimate, conducted by the 2000–2001 National Jewish Population estimates, which estimated 5.2 million Jews. A 2007 study released by the Steinhardt Social Research Institute (SSRI) at Brandeis University presents evidence to suggest that both these figures may be underestimations with a potential 7.0–7.4 million Americans of Jewish descent.[68] Those higher estimates were however arrived at by including all non-Jewish family members and household members, rather than surveyed individuals.[69] In a 2019 study by Jews of Color Initiative it was found that approximately 12-15% of Jews in the United States, about 1,000,000 of 7,200,000 identify as multiracial and Jews of color.[70] [71] [72] [73] [74]

The population of Americans of Jewish descent is demographically characterized by an aging population composition and low fertility rates significantly below generational replacement.[69]

The National Jewish Population Survey of 1990 asked 4.5 million adult Jews to identify their denomination. The national total showed 38% were affiliated with the Reform tradition, 35% were Conservative, 6% were Orthodox, 1% were Reconstructionists, 10% linked themselves to some other tradition, and 10% said they are "just Jewish."[75] In 2013, Pew Research's Jewish population survey found that 35% of American Jews identified as Reform, 18% as Conservative, 10% as Orthodox, 6% who identified with other sects, and 30% did not identify with a denomination.[76] Pew's 2020 poll found that 37% affiliated with Reform Judaism, 17% with Conservative Judaism, and 9% with Orthodox Judaism. Young Jews are more likely to identify as Orthodox or as unaffiliated compared to older members of the Jewish community.

Many Jews are concentrated in the Northeast, particularly around New York City. Many Jews also live in South Florida, Los Angeles and other large metropolitan areas, like Chicago, San Francisco, or Atlanta. The metropolitan areas of New York City, Los Angeles, and Miami contain nearly one quarter of the world's Jews[77] and the New York City metropolitan area itself contains around a quarter of all Jews living in the United States.

By state

According to a study published by demographers and sociologists Ira M. Sheskin and Arnold Dashefsky in the American Jewish Yearbook, the distribution of the Jewish population in 2020 was as follows:

Significant Jewish population centers

Rank! rowspan=2
Metro areaNumber of Jews
(WJC)(ARDA)[78] (WJC)(ASARB)
align=center 1align=center 1New York Cityalign=right 1,750,000align=right 2,028,200
align=center 2align=center 3Miamialign=right 535,000align=right 337,000
align=center 3align=center 2Los Angelesalign=right 490,000align=right 662,450
align=center 4align=center 4Philadelphiaalign=right 254,000align=right 285,950
align=center 5align=center 6Chicagoalign=right 248,000align=right 265,400
align=center 8align=center 8San Francisco Bay Areaalign=right 210,000align=right 218,700
align=center 6align=center 7Boston208,000261,100
align=center 8align=center 5Baltimore–Washington165,000276,445
States with the highest percentage of Jews (2015)! Rank! State! Percent
Jewish
align=center 1New Yorkalign=right 8.91
align=center 2New Jerseyalign=right 5.86
align=center 3District of Columbiaalign=right 4.25
align=center 4Massachusettsalign=right 4.07
align=center 5Marylandalign=right 3.99
align=center 6Floridaalign=right 3.28
align=center 7Connecticut3.28
align=center 8California3.18
align=center 9Nevada2.69
align=center 10Illinois2.31
align=center 11Pennsylvania2.29

The New York City metropolitan area is the second-largest Jewish population center in the world after the Tel Aviv metropolitan area in Israel.[77] Several other major cities have large Jewish communities, including Los Angeles, Miami Baltimore, Boston, Chicago, San Francisco and Philadelphia.[79] In many metropolitan areas, the majority of Jewish families live in suburban areas. The Greater Phoenix area was home to about 83,000 Jews in 2002, and has been rapidly growing.[80] The greatest Jewish population on a per-capita basis for incorporated areas in the U.S. are Kiryas Joel Village, New York (greater than 93% based on language spoken in home),[81] City of Beverly Hills, California (61%),[82] and Lakewood Township, New Jersey (59%),[83] with two of the incorporated areas, Kiryas Joel and Lakewood, having a high concentration of Haredi Jews, and one incorporated area, Beverly Hills, having a high concentration of non-Orthodox Jews.

The phenomenon of Israeli migration to the U.S. is often termed Yerida. The Israeli immigrant community in America is less widespread. The significant Israeli immigrant communities in the United States are in the New York City metropolitan area, Los Angeles, Miami, and Chicago.[84]

According to the 2001 undertaking[86] of the National Jewish Population Survey, 4.3 million American Jews have some sort of strong connection to the Jewish community, whether religious or cultural.

Distribution of Jewish Americans

According to the North American Jewish Data Bank[87] the 104 counties and independent cities with the largest Jewish communities, as a percentage of population, were:

Counties State Jews Pct
Jewish
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 91,300 29.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 561,000 22.4%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 230,000 17.2%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 208,850 15.8%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 240,000 15.1%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 136,000 14.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 113,000 11.6%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 61,500 10.7%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 26,100 10.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 92,500 10.2%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 64,000 10.2%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 170,700 9.8%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 7,425 9.6%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 63,600 9.5%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 198,000 8.9%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 32,300 8.7%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 101 8.6%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 65,800 8.2%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 64,500 8.1%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 113,800 7.6%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 60,000 7.5%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 51,300 7.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 34,000 7.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 128,000 7.2%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 14,000 6.7%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 47,800 6.7%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 41,400 6.6%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 54,000 6.6%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 52,000 6.4%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 32,100 6.2%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 48,800 6.2%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 750 6.1%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 17,200 6.0%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 29,700 6.0%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 19,000 5.9%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 86,000 5.8%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 70,300 5.5%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 50,000 5.4%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 518,000 5.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 4,500 5.2%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 47,200 5.1%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 61,200 5.1%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 30,900 5.0%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 49,600 5.0%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 500 4.9%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 28,700 4.8%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 23,100 4.8%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 25,800 4.8%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 28,000 4.7%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 66,800 4.4%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 750 4.4%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 24,600 4.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 11,700 4.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 4,000 4.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 106,300 4.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 20,900 4.2%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 220,200 4.2%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 12,000 4.1%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 20,000 4.0%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 59,100 3.9%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 12,000 3.9%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 54,000 3.9%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 3,900 3.9%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 21,000 3.8%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 72,300 3.7%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 27,000 3.7%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 25,000 3.6%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 38,900 3.6%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 4,900 3.5%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 10,000 3.4%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 4,600 3.4%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 5,200 3.4%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 40,500 3.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 4,300 3.3%
style=text-align:leftFairfax750 3.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 29,600 3.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 101 3.2%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 5,900 3.2%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 32,100 3.1%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 27,100 3.1%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 22,300 3.0%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 12,900 2.9%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 89,000 2.9%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 4,300 2.9%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 15,000 2.8%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 83,750 2.8%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 21,400 2.7%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 20,000 2.7%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 25,000 2.7%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 19,000 2.6%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 9,950 2.6%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 1,400 2.5%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 17,300 2.5%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 8,000 2.5%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 29,300 2.5%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 9,000 2.5%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 6,775 2.4%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 10,000 2.4%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 5,000 2.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 101 2.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 300 2.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 10,600 2.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 6,000 2.3%
style=text-align:leftstyle=text-align:left 3,300 2.3%

Assimilation and population changes

These parallel themes have facilitated the extraordinary economic, political, and social success of the American Jewish community, but also have contributed to widespread cultural assimilation.[88] More recently however, the propriety and degree of assimilation has also become a significant and controversial issue within the modern American Jewish community, with both political and religious skeptics.[89]

While not all Jews disapprove of intermarriage, many members of the Jewish community have become concerned that the high rate of interfaith marriage will result in the eventual disappearance of the American Jewish community. Intermarriage rates have risen from roughly 6% in 1950 and 25% in 1974,[90] to approximately 40–50% in the year 2000.[91] By 2013, the intermarriage rate had risen to 71% for non-Orthodox Jews.[92] This, in combination with the comparatively low birthrate in the Jewish community, has led to a 5% decline in the Jewish population of the United States in the 1990s. In addition to this, when compared with the general American population, the American Jewish community is slightly older.

A third of intermarried couples provide their children with a Jewish upbringing, and doing so is more common among intermarried families raising their children in areas with high Jewish populations.[93] The Boston area, for example, is exceptional in that an estimated 60% of children of intermarriages are being raised Jewish, meaning that intermarriage would actually be contributing to a net increase in the number of Jews.[94] As well, some children raised through intermarriage rediscover and embrace their Jewish roots when they themselves marry and have children.

In contrast to the ongoing trends of assimilation, some communities within American Jewry, such as Orthodox Jews, have significantly higher birth rates and lower intermarriage rates, and are growing rapidly. The proportion of Jewish synagogue members who were Orthodox rose from 11% in 1971 to 21% in 2000, while the overall Jewish community declined in number. [95] In 2000, there were 360,000 so-called "ultra-orthodox" (Haredi) Jews in USA (7.2%).[96] The figure for 2006 is estimated at 468,000 (9.4%).[96] Data from the Pew Center shows that, as of 2013, 27% of American Jews under the age of 18 live in Orthodox households, a dramatic increase from Jews aged 18 to 29, only 11% of whom are Orthodox. The UJA-Federation of New York reports that 60% of Jewish children in the New York City area live in Orthodox homes. In addition to economizing and sharing, many Haredi communities depend on government aid to support their high birth rate and large families. The Hasidic village of New Square, New York receives Section8 housing subsidies at a higher rate than the rest of the region, and half of the population in the Hasidic village of Kiryas Joel, New York receive food stamps, while a third receive Medicaid.[97]

About half of the American Jews are considered to be religious. Out of this 2,831,000 religious Jewish population, 92% are non-Hispanic white, 5% Hispanic (Most commonly from Argentina, Venezuela, or Cuba), 1% Asian, 1% black and 1% Other (mixed race etc.). Almost this many non-religious Jews exist in the United States.[98]

Race and ethnicity

The United States Census Bureau classifies most American Jews as white.[99] Jewish people are culturally diverse and may be of any race, ethnicity, or national origin. Many Jews have culturally assimilated into and are phenotypically indistinguishable from the dominant local populations of regions like Europe, the Caucasus and the Crimea, North Africa, West Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, South, East, and Central Asia, and the Americas where they have lived for many centuries.[100] [101] [102] Most American Jews are Ashkenazi Jews who descend from Jewish populations of Central and Eastern Europe and are considered white unless they are Ashkenazi Jews of color. Many American Jews identify themselves as being both Jewish and white, while many solely identify as Jewish, resisting this identification.[103] Several commentators have observed that "many American Jews retain a feeling of ambivalence about whiteness".[104] Karen Brodkin explains this ambivalence as rooted in anxieties about the potential loss of Jewish identity, especially outside of intellectual elites.[105] Similarly, Kenneth Marcus observes a number of ambivalent cultural phenomena which have also been noted by other scholars, and he concludes that "the veneer of whiteness has not established conclusively the racial construction of American Jews".[106] The relationship between Jewish identity and white majority identity continues to be described as "complicated" for many American Jews, particularly Ashkenazi and Sephardi Jews of European descent. The issue of Jewish whiteness may be different for many Mizrahi, Sephardi, Black, Asian, and Latino Jews, many of whom may never be considered white by society.[107] Many American white nationalists and white supremacists view all Jews as non-white, even if they are of European descent.[108] Some white nationalists believe that Jews can be white and a small number of white nationalists are Jewish.[109]

In 2013, the Pew Research Center's Portrait of Jewish Americans found that more than 90% of Jews who responded to its survey described themselves as being non-Hispanic whites, 2% described themselves as being black, 3% described themselves as being Hispanic, and 2% described themselves as having other racial or ethnic backgrounds.[110]

Jews by race, ancestry, or national origin

Asian-American Jews

According to the Pew Research Center, fewer than 1% of American Jews in 2020 identified as Asian Americans. Around 1% of religious Jews identified as Asian-American.

A small but growing community of around 350 Indian American Jews lives in the New York City metropolitan area, in both New York state and New Jersey. Many are members of India's Bene Israel community.[111] The Indian Jewish Congregation of USA, headquartered in New York City, is the center of the organized community.[112]

Jews of European descent

Jews of European descent, often referred to as white Jews, are classified as white by the US census and have generally been classified as legally white throughout American history.[113] Many American Jews of European descent identify themselves as being both Jewish and white, while others solely identify themselves as being Jewish or identify as both Jewish and non-white.[114] However, Jews of European descent rarely identify as Jews of color and are rarely considered people of color in American society. According to the Pew Research Center, the majority of American Jews are non-Hispanic white Ashkenazi Jews. Law professor David Bernstein has questioned the idea that American Jews were once considered non-white, writing that American Jews were "indeed considered white by law and by custom" despite the fact that they experienced "discrimination, hostility, assertions of inferiority and occasionally even violence." Bernstein notes that Jews were not targeted by laws against interracial marriage, were allowed to attend whites-only schools, and were classified as white in the Jim Crow South.[115] The sociologists Philip Q. Yang and Kavitha Koshy have also questioned what they call the "becoming white thesis", noting that most Jews of European descent have been legally classified as white since the first US census in 1790, were legally white for the purposes of the Naturalization Act of 1790 that limited citizenship to "free White person(s)", and that they could find no legislative or judicial evidence that American Jews had ever been considered non-white.[113]

Several commentators have observed that "many American Jews retain a feeling of ambivalence about whiteness".[116] Karen Brodkin explains this ambivalence as rooted in anxieties about the potential loss of Jewish identity, especially outside of intellectual elites.[117] Similarly, Kenneth Marcus observes a number of ambivalent cultural phenomena which have also been noted by other scholars, and he concludes that "the veneer of whiteness has not established conclusively the racial construction of American Jews".[118] The relationship between American Jews and white majority identity continues to be described as "complicated".[119] Many American white nationalists view Jews as non-white.[120]

Jews of Middle Eastern and North African descent

Jews of Middle Eastern and North African descent (often referred to as Mizrahi Jews) are classified as white by the US census. Mizrahi Jews sometimes identify as Jews of color, but often do not, and they may or may not be considered people of color by society. Syrian Jews rarely identify as Jews of color and are generally not considered Jews of color by society. Many Syrian Jews identify as white, Middle Eastern, or otherwise non-white rather than as Jews of color.[121]

African American Jews

See also: African American–Jewish relations and Black Hebrew Israelites.

The American Jewish community includes African American Jews and other American Jews who are of African descent, a definition which excludes North African Jewish Americans, who are currently classified by the U.S. Census as being white (although a new category was recommended by the Census Bureau for the 2020 census).[122] Estimates of the number of American Jews of African descent in the United States range from 20,000[123] to 200,000.[124] Jews of African descent belong to all American Jewish denominations. Like their other Jewish counterparts, some black Jews are atheists.

Notable African-American Jews include Drake, Lenny Kravitz, Lisa Bonet, Sammy Davis Jr., Rashida Jones, Ros Gold-Onwude, Yaphet Kotto, Jordan Farmar, Taylor Mays, Daveed Diggs, Alicia Garza, Tiffany Haddish and rabbis Capers Funnye and Alysa Stanton.

Relations between American Jews of African descent and other Jewish Americans are generally cordial. There are, however, disagreements with a specific minority of Black Hebrew Israelites community from among African-Americans who consider themselves, but not other Jews, to be the true descendants of the ancient Israelites. Black Hebrew Israelites are generally not considered members of the mainstream Jewish community, because they have not formally converted to Judaism, and they are not ethnically related to other Jews. One such group, the African Hebrew Israelites of Jerusalem, emigrated to Israel and was granted permanent residency status there.

Hispanic and Latin American Jews

Hispanic Jews have lived in what is now the United States since colonial times. The earliest Hispanic Jewish settlers were Sephardi Jews from Spain and Portugal. Beginning in the 1500s, some of the Spanish settlers in what is now New Mexico and Texas were Crypto-Jews, but there was no organized Jewish presence.[125] [126] Later waves of Sephardi immigration brought Judeo-Spanish speaking Jews from the Ottoman Empire, in what is now Greece, Turkey, Bulgaria, and Syria. These Spanish-speaking Sephardi Jews, as well as Sephardi Jews of European descent, such as the Spanish and Portuguese Jews, are sometimes considered culturally but not ethnically Hispanic.

Hispanic and Latin American Jews, particularly Hispanic and Latin American Ashkenazi Jews, often identify as white rather than as Jews of color. Some Jews with roots in Latin America may not identify as "Hispanic" or "Latino" at all, usually due to their recent European immigrant origins.[121] American Jews of Argentine, Brazilian, and Mexican descent are often Ashkenazi, but some are Sephardi.[127]

Jews divided by Cultural or Jewish Ethnic Division Groupings

AncestryPopulation% of US population
Ashkenazim[128] 5,000,000–6,000,000–
Sephardim[129] 300,000–
Mizrahim250,000–
Italkim200,000–
Bukharim50,000–60,000–
Juhurim10,000–40,000–
Turkos8,000–
Romanyotim6,500–
Beta Israel[130] 1,000
Total5,700,000–8,000,000–
Ashkenazi Jews in the United States

Ashkenazi Jews,[131] also known as Ashkenazic Jews or, by using the Hebrew plural suffix -im, Ashkenazim

Notes and References

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  2. News: Israel versus the Jews . 9 July 2017 . . 7 July 2017 . July 9, 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170709030847/https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21724880-israeli-government-opens-rift-american-jews-over-prayer-rights-israel . live .
  3. Book: Sheskin, Ira M. . McKee . Jesse O. . Ethnicity in Contemporary America: A Geographical Appraisal . 2000 . . Lanham, MD . 978-0-7425-0034-1 . 227 . American Jews . https://books.google.com/books?id=rrf_HrCTXdgC&pg=PA227 . [The 1990 National Jewish Population Survey] showed that only five percent of American Jews consider being Jewish solely in terms of being a member of a religious group. Thus, the vast majority of American Jews view themselves as members of an ethnic group and/or a cultural group, and/or a nationality. .
  4. Web site: Mitchell . Travis . 2021-05-11 . 1. The size of the U.S. Jewish population . 2024-06-09 . Pew Research Center . en-US.
  5. Book: Sheskin, Dashefsky . Ira, Arnold . American Jewish Year Book 2020 The Annual Record of the North American Jewish Communities Since 1899 . December 22, 2021 . Springer International Publishing . 9783030787059.
  6. Web site: Jews in America: Portal to American Jewish History . February 15, 2015 . www.jewsinamerica.org . May 5, 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180505164009/http://www.jewsinamerica.org/ . live .
  7. Web site: Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim Synagogue . jewishvirtuallibrary.org . 2014 . January 20, 2016 . December 3, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20161203093109/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/vjw/Kahalsyn.html . live .
  8. Atkin. Maurice. etal. United States of America. 20. 305.
  9. Web site: Kahal Kadosh Beth Elohim Synagogue . nps.gov . January 20, 2016 . March 15, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160315222519/http://www.nps.gov/nr/travel/charleston/kah.htm . live .
  10. Web site: Tzvi . 2017-04-20 . The Jew who Financed the American Revolution . 2023-10-09 . Aish.com . en-US . November 27, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20221127054734/https://aish.com/the-jew-who-financed-the-american-revolution/ . live .
  11. Alexander DeConde, Ethnicity, Race, and American Foreign Policy: A History , p. 52
  12. Web site: Sarna . Jonathan . Golden . Jonathan . The American Jewish Experience through the Nineteenth Century: Immigration and Acculturation . The National Humanities Center . TeacherServe . 27 April 2016 . May 1, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160501030159/http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/tserve/nineteen/nkeyinfo/judaism.htm . live .
  13. Encyclopedia: History of Temple Israel . . Encyclopedia of Southern Jewish Communities . Jackson, Mississippi . 2006 . July 22, 2010 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20120402064203/http://www.isjl.org/history/archive/tn/HistoryofTempleIsrael.htm . April 2, 2012.

  14. Jewish Encyclopedia bibliography:
    • I. M. Wise, Reminiscences, transl. from the German and ed. by David Philipson, Cincinnati, 1901;
    • Selected Writings of Isaac M. Wise, with a biography by David Philipson and Louis Grossmann, ib. 1900;
    • The American Israelite, 1854–1900, passim, and the Jubilee number, 30 June 1904.
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  16. Yiddish is a dialect of German written in the Hebrew alphabet and based entirely on the East European Jewish population. Book: Robert Moses Shapiro . Why Didn't the Press Shout?: American & International Journalism During the Holocaust . 2003 . KTAV . 18 . 9780881257755 . October 16, 2015 . September 15, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230915111213/https://books.google.com/books?id=I3lItIwOzCkC&pg=PA18 . live .
  17. Sarna, American Judaism (2004) pp. 284–5
  18. News: Lalany . Nelly . Ashkenazi Jews rank smartest in world . . 2011-07-23 . Jews comprise 2.2% of the USA population, but they represent 30% of faculty at elite colleges, 21% of Ivy League students, 25% of the Turing Award winners, 23% of the wealthiest Americans, and 38% of the Oscar-winning film directors . 27 October 2013 . February 14, 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140214142839/http://www.ynetnews.com/articles/0,7340,L-4098351,00.html . live .
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  21. Poll: Jews highest-earning group in US , The Jerusalem Post, February 26, 2008
  22. Why is America Different?: American Jewry on Its 350th Anniversary edited by Steven T. Katz, (University of America Press 2010), page 15
  23. American Pluralism and the Jewish Community, edited by Seymour Martin Lipset, (Transaction Publishers 1990), page 3
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  25. Tony Michels, "Is America 'Different'? A Critique of American Jewish Exceptionalism," American Jewish History, 96 (Sept. 2010), 201–24; David Sorkin, "Is American Jewry Exceptional? Comparing Jewish Emancipation in Europe and America," American Jewish History, 96 (Sept. 2010), 175–200.
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  27. Steve . Siporin . Immigrant and Ethnic Family Folklore . Western States Jewish History . 1990 . 22 . 3 . 230–242 . 0749-5471.
  28. Book: Novick, Peter . The Holocaust in American Life . registration . 1999 . Houghton Mifflin . 9780395840092.
  29. Book: Hilene . Flanzbaum . The Americanization of the Holocaust . 1999.
  30. Monty Noam . Penkower . Shaping Holocaust Memory . American Jewish History . 2000 . 88 . 1 . 127–132 . 0164-0178 . 10.1353/ajh.2000.0021 . 161364396.
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  34. See Murray Friedman, What Went Wrong? The Creation and Collapse of the Black-Jewish Alliance. (1995)
  35. [Hasia Diner]
  36. Web site: Jewish Vote In Presidential Elections . October 28, 2008 . American-Israeli Cooperative Enterprise . May 14, 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080514093043/http://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/jsource/US-Israel/jewvote.html . live .
  37. Web site: Democratic Party Platform of 1944 . American Presidency Project . 24 May 2016 . June 25, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160625020558/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=29598 . dead .
  38. Web site: Republican Party Platform of 1944 . American Presidency Project . 24 May 2016 . June 24, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160624233257/http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=25835 . dead .
  39. Web site: Results . CNN.com Election 2004 . www.cnn.com . en . November 9, 2006 . May 14, 2007 . https://web.archive.org/web/20070514025413/http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2004/pages/results/states/US/P/00/epolls.0.html . live .
  40. http://www.jta.org/2008/11/05/news-opinion/politics/op-ed-why-jews-voted-for-obama OP-ED: Why Jews voted for Obama
  41. News: Local Exit Polls – Election Center 2008 – Elections & Politics from CNN.com. February 15, 2015. June 5, 2010. https://web.archive.org/web/20100605132422/http://www.cnn.com/ELECTION/2008/results/polls/#val=USP00p2. live.
  42. News: As Bernie Sanders Makes History, Jews Wonder What It Means . Nicholas . Confessore . February 10, 2016 . The New York Times . February 5, 2017 . July 22, 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170722055109/https://www.nytimes.com/2016/02/11/us/politics/bernie-sanders-jewish.html . live .
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  44. Web site: 2006 EXIT POLLS . CNN . 4 January 2014 . April 25, 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130425170634/http://edition.cnn.com/ELECTION/2006/pages/results/states/US/H/00/epolls.0.html . live .
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  46. Web site: Jews in the 111th Congress - The Jewish Exponent . https://web.archive.org/web/20110812053407/http://www.jewishexponent.com/article/17558/Jews_in_the_111th_Congress/. dead. August 12, 2011 . August 12, 2011.
  47. http://www.jta.org/2008/11/25/news-opinion/politics/what-is-the-future-for-republican-jews What is the future for Republican Jews?
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  55. Web site: Veterans of the Civil Rights Movement – March on Washington . Civil Rights Movement Archive . June 2, 2008 . July 23, 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080723183053/http://www.crmvet.org/info/mowprog.htm . live .
  56. Henry L. Feingold, A Time for Searching: Entering the Mainstream, 1920–1945 (1992), pp. 225–65
  57. Korman . Gerd . 1987 . Mass Murder Hides Holocaust: Beyond Belief: The American Press and the Coming of the Holocaust, 1933–1945 by Deborah E. Lipstadt . Reviews in American History . 15 . 3 . 474–479 . 2702047 . 10.2307/2702047.
  58. Staub (2004) p. 80
  59. Melvin I. Urofsky, Louis D. Brandeis: A Life (2009) p. 515
  60. Staub (2004)
  61. Roberta Strauss Feuerlicht. "The Fate of the Jews, A people torn between Israeli Power and Jewish Ethics". Times Books, 1983.
  62. Book: Seliktar, Ofira . The Changing Identity of American Jews, Israel and the Peace Process. Danny. Ben-Moshe. Zohar. Segev . Israel, the Diaspora, and Jewish Identity. https://books.google.com/books?id=1bXETKMOI1cC&pg=PA126. January 20, 2016 . 2007 . Sussex Academic Press . 978-1-84519-189-4 . 126 . The 1993 Oslo Agreement made this split in the Jewish community official. Prime Minister Yitzak Rabin's handshake with Yasir Arafat during the September 13 White House ceremony elicited dramatically opposed reactions among American Jews. To the liberal universalists the accord was highly welcome news. As one commentator put it, after a year of tension between Israel and the United States, "there was an audible sigh of relief from American and Jewish liberals. Once again, they could support Israel as good Jews, committed liberals, and loyal Americans." The community "could embrace the Jewish state, without compromising either its liberalism or its patriotism".
    However, to some right wing Jews, the peace treaty was worrisome. From their perspective, Oslo was not just an affront to the sanctity of how they interpreted their culture, but also a personal threat to the lives and livelihood in the West Bank and Gaza, territory which was historically known as "Judea and Samaria". For these Jews, such as Morton Klein, the president of the Zionist organization of America, and Norman Podhoretz, the editor of Commentary, the peace treaty amounted to an appeasement of Palestinian terrorism. They and others repeatedly warned that the newly established Palestinian Authority (PA) would pose a serious security threat to Israel. .
  63. Scott . Lasensky. Barry. Rubin . Underwriting Peace in the Middle East: U.S. Foreign Policy and the Limits of Economic Inducements . Middle East Review of International Affairs . 6 . 1 . March 2002. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20090510071636/http://meria.idc.ac.il/journal/2002/issue1/jv6n1a7.html. May 10, 2009 . The Palestinian aid effort was certainly not helped by the heated debate that quickly developed inside the Beltway. Not only was the Israeli electorate divided on the Oslo accords, but so, too, was the American Jewish community, particularly at the leadership level and among the major New York and Washington-based public interest groups. American Jews opposed to Oslo joined Israelis "who brought their domestic issues to Washington" and together they pursued a campaign that focused most of its attention on Congress and the aid program. The dynamic was new to Washington. The Administration, the Rabin-Peres government, and some American Jewish groups teamed on one side while Israeli opposition groups and anti-Oslo American Jewish organizations pulled Congress in the other direction..
  64. Web site: Jewish Population Rises to 15.7 Million Worldwide The Jewish Agency . 2024-06-09 . www.jewishagency.org.
  65. News: American Jews, Politics and Israel . Newport . Frank . 2019-08-27 . gallup.com . 2019-09-09 . A 2013 Pew Research Center analysis of Jewish identification showed that in addition to the 1.8% of U.S. adults who identified their religion as Jewish (very similar to Gallup's estimate), another small percentage of Americans who did not initially say their religion was Jewish identified their secular heritage as Jewish. According to this research, at maximum 2.2% of the U.S. adult population has some basis for Jewish self-identification. . September 5, 2019 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190905175756/https://news.gallup.com/opinion/polling-matters/265898/american-jews-politics-israel.aspx . live .
  66. News: Population, Population Change, and Estimated Components of Population Change: April 1, 2010 to July 1, 2020 (NST-EST2020-alldata) . The United States Census Bureau . United States Census Bureau . 22 December 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20201222173239/https://www.census.gov/programs-surveys/popest/technical-documentation/research/evaluation-estimates.html . December 22, 2020 . live .
  67. News: New Brandeis study estimates 7.6 million Jews living in U.S. . Forman . Ethan . 26 January 2022 . Jewish Journal . Jewish Journal . January 26, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220126210210/https://jewishjournal.org/2021/04/22/new-brandeis-study-estimates-7-6-million-jews-living-in-u-s/ . live .
  68. Web site: Brandeis University Study Finds that American-Jewish Population is Significantly Larger than Previously Thought. 30 November 2013. October 2, 2013. https://web.archive.org/web/20131002122538/http://download.2164.net/PDF-newsletters/jewishpopulation.pdf. dead.
  69. Sergio DellaPergola. "World Jewish Population, 2012." The American Jewish Year Book (2012) (Dordrecht: Springer) pp. 212–283
  70. News: Yellin . Deena . Subjected to anti-Semitism and racism, Jews of color feel 'stuck in the middle' . 2021-02-24 . North Jersey Media Group . en-US . September 22, 2020 . https://web.archive.org/web/20200922020243/https://www.northjersey.com/story/news/local/2020/08/27/jewish-people-of-color-grapple-with-bigotry-two-fronts/5444526002/ . live .
  71. News: Dolsten . Josefin . US Jewish recognition of Jews of color took decades of sweat, blood and tears . 2021-02-24 . www.timesofisrael.com . en-US . January 26, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210126163304/https://www.timesofisrael.com/us-jewish-recognition-of-jews-of-color-took-decades-of-sweat-blood-and-tears/ . live .
  72. Web site: How Many Jews of Color Are There? – eJewish Philanthropy . 2021-02-24 . ejewishphilanthropy.com . May 17, 2020 . March 1, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210301061555/https://ejewishphilanthropy.com/how-many-jews-of-color-are-there/ . live .
  73. Web site: 2019-05-16. PRESS RELEASE: Population of Jews of Color is Increasing in U.S., Despite Undercounting in Population Studies Leichtag Foundation. 2021-02-24. leichtag.org. en-US. February 22, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210222025933/https://leichtag.org/press-release-population-of-jews-of-color-is-increasing-in-u-s-despite-undercounting-in-population-studies/. live.
  74. Web site: Kelman . Dr. Ari Y . Tapper . Dr. Aaron Hahn . Fonseca . Ms. Izabel . Saperstein . Dr. Aliya . May 2019 . An Analysis of American Jewish Population Studies, with a Focus on Jews of Color . The Jews of Color Initiative . February 24, 2021 . February 13, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210213130219/https://jewsofcolorfieldbuilding.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/05/Counting-Inconsistencies-052119.pdf . live .
  75. Book: Wertheimer, Jack . Jews in the Center: Conservative Synagogues and Their Members . 2002 . Rutgers University Press . 68 . 9780813532066 . October 16, 2015 . September 15, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230915111143/https://books.google.com/books?id=U_nEoAZ6ffgC&pg=PA68 . live .
  76. News: A Portrait of Jewish Americans . Pew Research Center's Religion & Public Life Project . pewforum.org . June 23, 2017 . October 2013 . September 15, 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180915231110/http://www.pewforum.org/2013/10/01/jewish-american-beliefs-attitudes-culture-survey/ . live .
  77. News: The Largest Jewish Communities . adherents.com. November 8, 2008. https://web.archive.org/web/20081016132750/http://www.adherents.com/largecom/com_judaism.html. October 16, 2008 . usurped.
  78. Web site: Judaism (estimated) Metro Areas (2000) . December 1, 2009 . The Association of Religion Data Archives . https://web.archive.org/web/20091123122848/http://www.thearda.com/QuickLists/QuickList_195c.asp . November 23, 2009 . dead . mdy.
  79. Dashefsky . Arnold . Arnold Dashefsky . Della-Pergola . Sergio . Sergio Della Pergola . Sheskin . Ira . 2021 . World Jewish Population. Berman Jewish DataBank. 4 September 2023.
  80. Web site: 2002 Greater Phoenix Jewish Community Study. https://web.archive.org/web/20120513181517/http://www.jewishphoenix.org/local_includes/downloads/9038.pdf . dead . 2012-05-13 .
  81. Web site: Kiryas Joel, New York . https://web.archive.org/web/20060923112824/http://www.mla.org/census_data_results%26state_id%3D36%26place_id%3D39853 . dead . September 23, 2006 . Modern Language Association . December 14, 2006.
  82. Book: Herman, Pini . Needs of the Community: A Classification of Needs & Services for the L.A. Jewish Community . 2000 . Jewish Federation of Greater Los Angeles . Los Angeles . 36 . January 3, 2013 . January 16, 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20130116072348/http://www.bjpa.org/Publications/details.cfm?PublicationID=11686 . live .
  83. Web site: Jewish Population in the United States, 2010 . Ira Sheskin University of Miami, Arnold Dashefsky University of Connecticut . 8 November 2013 . December 17, 2013 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131217070116/http://www.jewishdatabank.org/Studies/downloadFile.cfm?FileID=2921 . live .
  84. Gold . Steven . Steven J. Gold . Phillips . Bruce . Israelis in the United States . American Jewish Yearbook . 96 . 51–101 . 1996 . May 8, 2008 . May 28, 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080528123751/http://www.ajcarchives.org/AJC_DATA/Files/1996_3_SpecialArticles.pdf . live .
  85. Web site: Database on immigrants and expatriates:Emigration rates by country of birth (Total population) . Organisation for Economic Co-ordination and Development, Statistics Portal . April 15, 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080512003030/http://www.oecd.org/document/51/0%2C3343%2Cen_2825_494553_34063091_1_1_1_1%2C00.html . May 12, 2008 . dead.
  86. Web site: UJC - NJPS: Demography: The Jewish Population . December 2, 2006. dead. https://web.archive.org/web/20061202051914/http://www.ujc.org/content_display.html?ArticleID=83784. December 2, 2006 . mdy-all.
  87. Web site: Jewish Maps of the United States by Counties, 2011 . Joshua . Comenetz . . September 10, 2017 . June 3, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160603025610/http://www.jewishdatabank.org/Studies/details.cfm?StudyID=602 . live .
  88. Postrel . Virginia . Uncommon Culture . Reason Magazine . May 1993 . October 5, 2007. https://web.archive.org/web/20071010033730/http://reason.com/news/show/29368.html. October 10, 2007 . live.
  89. Marsha L. . Rozenblit . 4467195 . Review of Bela Vago's "Jewish Assimilation in Modern Times" . Jewish Social Studies . 44 . 3/4 . 1982 . 334–335 . Religious Jews regarded those who assimilated with horror, and Zionists campaigned against assimilation as an act of treason..
  90. Web site: THE LARGER TASK – MARCUS . . 17 October 2013 . February 3, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160203092656/http://media.americanjewisharchives.org/docs/marcus/largerTask.pdf . live .
  91. Web site: Cengage Learning – Login. https://web.archive.org/web/20021128122938/http://college.hmco.com/history/readerscomp/rcah/html/ah_047702_religiouscul.htm. 2002-11-28 . February 15, 2015.
  92. News: Pew survey of U.S. Jews: soaring intermarriage, assimilation rates . Jewish Telegraphic Agency . October 2013 . March 2, 2014 . February 27, 2014 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140227094139/http://www.jta.org/2013/10/01/news-opinion/united-states/pew-survey-u-s-jewish-intermarriage-rate-rises-to-58-percent . live .
  93. News: Jewish population in region rises . Boston Globe . November 29, 2009 . Michael . Paulson . November 10, 2006 . April 11, 2009 . https://web.archive.org/web/20090411122355/http://www.boston.com/news/local/articles/2006/11/10/jewish_population_in_region_rises/ . live .
  94. Web site: The 2005 Boston Community Survey: Preliminary Findings. https://web.archive.org/web/20061213074021/http://www.cjp.org/local_includes/downloads/16072.pdf. dead. December 13, 2006 . December 13, 2006.
  95. News: The Future of Judaism . nysun.com . January 20, 2016 . January 9, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160109094437/http://www.nysun.com/foreign/future-of-judaism/8189/ . live .
  96. News: Majority of Jews will be Ultra-Orthodox by 2050 . manchester.ac.uk . January 20, 2016 . January 9, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160109094438/http://www.manchester.ac.uk/discover/news/article/?id=2932 . live .
  97. https://forward.com/articles/187429/orthodox-population-grows-faster-than-first-figure/?p=all Orthodox Population Grows Faster Than First Figures in Pew #JewishAmerica Study
  98. Web site: ARIS 2001. https://web.archive.org/web/20071127094118/http://www.gc.cuny.edu/faculty/research_briefs/aris.pdf . dead . 2007-11-27 .  
  99. U.S. Census Bureau, 2000 Census of Population, Public Law 94-171 Redistricting Data File.. (archived from the original on November 3, 2001).
  100. Johnson, A History of the Jews, p.237
  101. p. 86: "The principal significance of this plan lies in the fact, noted by Yehuda Shenhav, that this was the first time in Zionist history that Jews from Middle Eastern and North African countries were all packaged together in one category as the target of an immigration plan. There were earlier plans to bring specific groups, such as the Yemenites, but the "one million plan" was, as Shenhav says, "the zero point," the moment when the category of Mizrahi Jews in the current sense of this term, as an ethnic group distinct from European-born Jews, was invented." p.89—90 ..."Shehav's argument that the one million plan led to the invention of the category of Mizrahi Jews and gave the term the meaning it has today, because the plan treated all Jews who originated in these countries as belonging to a single category of candidates for immigration. ... it added another layer of meaning to the newly minted and still crystallizing Mizrahi category, that is, as implying a quasi-racial division between those who had an "oriental appearance" and those who did not."
  102. Web site: Separatists, continued... . November 17, 2014 . Adherents.com . September 23, 2003 . https://web.archive.org/web/20030923000736/http://www.adherents.com/Na/Na_588.html . dead .
  103. Book: Chen . Carolyn . Sustaining Faith Traditions: Race, Ethnicity, and Religion Among the Latino and Asian American Second Generation . Jeung . Russell . NYU Press . 2012 . 978-0-8147-1735-6 . 88 . September 30, 2017 . September 15, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230915111216/https://books.google.com/books?id=LoUUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 . live .
  104. http://jwa.org/teach/livingthelegacy/american-jews-race-identity-and-civil-rights-movement "American Jews, Race, Identity, and the Civil Rights Movement"
  105. Book: Brodkin, Karen . How Jews Became White Folks and what that Says about Race in America . 1998 . . registration. : "Ambivalence was expressed in the counterpoint between Jewish intellectuals' embrace of whiteness and the more ambivalent responses to whiteness in Jewish popular culture" (p. 182).
  106. Book: Marcus, Kenneth L. . Jewish Identity and Civil Rights in America . 2010 . Cambridge University Press.
  107. News: Schechter . Dave . December 19, 2016 . Are Jews White? It's Complicated . Atlanta Jewish Times . September 1, 2017 . August 31, 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170831181801/http://atlantajewishtimes.timesofisrael.com/jews-white-complicated/ . live .
  108. Book: Andersen . Margaret . Race, Class, & Gender: An Anthology . Patricia Hill Collins . Cengage Learning . 2015 . 978-1-305-53727-9 . 84–85 . August 12, 2018 . September 15, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230915111720/https://books.google.com/books?id=AJBvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 . live .
  109. Web site: Jared Taylor . . 2023-09-06 . November 21, 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181121162838/https://www.splcenter.org/fighting-hate/extremist-files/individual/jared-taylor . live .
  110. Web site: October 1, 2013 . A Portrait of Jewish Americans: Findings from a Pew Research Center Survey of U.S. Jews . August 19, 2017 . . 46 . August 19, 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170819102800/http://assets.pewresearch.org/wp-content/uploads/sites/11/2013/10/jewish-american-full-report-for-web.pdf . live .
  111. Web site: How the Indian Jewish community is preserving traditions for the next generation . December 11, 2017 . . 2024-01-31 . January 31, 2024 . https://web.archive.org/web/20240131070800/https://www.nbcnews.com/news/asian-america/how-indian-jewish-community-preserving-traditions-next-generation-n827226 . live .
  112. Web site: Indian Jewish Congregation of USA Newsletter . 2024-01-31 . February 28, 2008 . https://web.archive.org/web/20080228210318/http://www.jewsofindia.org/PDFs/Indian%20Jewish%20Congregation%20Newsletter%20Feb-2007.pdf . live.
  113. The "Becoming White Thesis" Revisited . The Journal of Public and Professional Sociology . 8 . 1 . 2022-09-01 . Philip . Q. Yang . Kavitha . Koshy . March 2016 . 10.62915/2154-8935.1096 . May 20, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220520104950/https://digitalcommons.kennesaw.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1096&context=jpps . live . free .
  114. Book: Carolyn . Chen . Russell . Jeung . Sustaining Faith Traditions: Race, Ethnicity, and Religion Among the Latino and Asian American Second Generation . 2012 . NYU Press . 978-0-8147-1735-6 . 88 . September 30, 2017 . September 15, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230915111216/https://books.google.com/books?id=LoUUCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA88 . live .
  115. News: Sorry, but the Irish were always 'white' (and so were Italians, Jews and so on) . . 2022-09-01 . David . Bernstein . March 22, 2017 . September 22, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220922044422/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/volokh-conspiracy/wp/2017/03/22/sorry-but-the-irish-were-always-white-and-so-were-the-italians-jews-and-so-on/ . live .
  116. Web site: American Jews, Race, Identity, and the Civil Rights Movement . https://web.archive.org/web/20170714211748/https://jwa.org/teach/livingthelegacy/american-jews-race-identity-and-civil-rights-movement . July 14, 2017. Rosenbaum . Judith . Jewish Women's Archive . December 12, 2015 . Today, many American Jews retain an ambivalence about whiteness, despite the fact that the vast majority have benefited and continue to benefit from white privilege. This ambivalence stems from many different places: a deep connection to a Jewish history of discrimination and otherness; a moral imperative to identify with the stranger; an anti-universalist impulse that does not want Jews to be among the "melted" in the proverbial melting pot; an experience of prejudice and awareness of the contingency of whiteness; a feeling that Jewish identity is not fully described by religion but has some ethnic/tribal component that feels more accurately described by race; and a discomfort with contemporary Jewish power and privilege..
  117. Book: Brodkin, Karen . How Jews Became White Folks and what that Says about Race in America . registration . 1998 . Rutgers University Press. : "Ambivalence was expressed in the counterpoint between Jewish intellectuals' embrace of whiteness and the more ambivalent responses to whiteness in Jewish popular culture" (p. 182).
  118. Book: Marcus, Kenneth L. . Jewish Identity and Civil Rights in America . 2010 . Cambridge University Press.
  119. News: Are Jews White? It's Complicated . Dave . Schechter . December 19, 2016 . Atlanta Jewish Times . September 1, 2017 . August 31, 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170831181801/http://atlantajewishtimes.timesofisrael.com/jews-white-complicated/ . live .
  120. Book: Margaret . Andersen . Patricia Hill Collins . Race, Class, & Gender: An Anthology . 2015 . Cengage Learning . 978-1-305-53727-9 . 84–85 . August 12, 2018 . September 15, 2023 . https://web.archive.org/web/20230915111720/https://books.google.com/books?id=AJBvCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA84 . live .
  121. Web site: May 11, 2021 . JEWISH AMERICANS IN 2020: 9. Race, ethnicity, heritage and immigration among U.S. Jews . Pew Research Center . September 2, 2022 . August 16, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220816120928/https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2021/05/11/race-ethnicity-heritage-and-immigration-among-u-s-jews/ . live .
  122. News: For Some Americans Of MENA Descent, Checking A Census Box Is Complicated . NPR.org . April 5, 2018 . April 4, 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20180404023945/https://www.npr.org/sections/codeswitch/2017/03/11/519548276/for-some-arab-americans-checking-a-census-box-is-complicated . live .
  123. A Fledgling Grant Maker Nurtures Young Jewish 'Social Entrepreneurs' . December 17, 2007 . David . Whelan . May 8, 2003 . . January 9, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160109094438/https://philanthropy.com/article/A-Fledgling-Grant-Maker/183775 . live .
  124. News: Organization for black Jews claims 200,000 in U.S. . August 2, 2010 . Michael . Gelbwasser . April 10, 1998 . . September 20, 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120920074803/http://www.jweekly.com/article/full/8029/organization-for-black-jews-claims-200-000-in-u-s/ . live .
  125. Web site: Virtual Jewish World: New Mexico, United States . . 2022-09-01 . September 2, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220902065329/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/new-mexico-jewish-history . live .
  126. Web site: Virtual Jewish World: Texas, United States . . 2022-09-01 . September 2, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220902065318/https://www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org/texas-jewish-history . live .
  127. Web site: Sephardic Hispanic Heritage: 13 Facts About 'Latino Jews' . September 15, 2015 . . 2022-09-01 . September 2, 2022 . https://web.archive.org/web/20220902064021/https://www.latintimes.com/sephardic-hispanic-heritage-13-facts-about-latino-jews-340203 . live .
  128. Feldman . Gabriel E. . May 2001 . Do Ashkenazi Jews have a Higher than expected Cancer Burden? Implications for cancer control prioritization efforts . . 3 . 5 . 341–46 . 11411198 . 2013-09-04 . December 24, 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20181224213544/https://www.ima.org.il/MedicineIMAJ/viewarticle.aspx?aid=2748 . live .
  129. News: Diez . Maria Sanchez . Mapped: Where Sephardic Jews live after they were kicked out of Spain 500 years ago . en . Quartz . 2021-04-20 . April 15, 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20210415233849/https://qz.com/427032/mapped-where-sephardic-jews-live-after-they-were-kicked-out-of-spain-500-years-ago/ . live .
  130. Web site: Mozgovaya . Natasha . 2008-04-02 . 'It's not easy being an Ethiopian Jew in America' . 2010-12-25 . Haaretz . January 9, 2016 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160109094437/http://www.haaretz.com/blogs/focus-u-s-a/it-s-not-easy-being-an-ethiopian-jew-in-america-1.273719 . live .
  131. Book: Wells, John . Longman Pronunciation Dictionary . 3 April 2008 . Pearson Longman . 978-1-4058-8118-0 . 3rd . John C. Wells.

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