The Albanian–Yugoslav rivalry refers to the series of political, ideological, and military tensions between Albania and Yugoslavia[1] throughout the 20th century. This rivalry was particularly pronounced after the formation of the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats, and Slovenes in 1918, which later became Yugoslavia, and it persisted from the late 1940s through the 1980s. The tensions were rooted in divergent national interests, conflicting political ideologies, and the struggle for influence within the Balkan Peninsula.[2] [3]
The origins of the Albania-Yugoslav rivalry can be traced back to the interwar period[4] [5] when Albania and the Kingdom of Yugoslavia had uneasy relations due to territorial disputes and ethnic tensions. Yugoslavia harbored ambitions of extending its influence over Albania, while Albania sought to maintain its independence and resist Yugoslav pressure[6]
See main article: Albanian-Yugoslav border war (1921). The Albanian–Yugoslav border war of 1921 arose from disputes over the borders of the newly established Principality of Albania after the First Balkan War. Although the 1913 Treaty of London outlined general territorial terms for Albania, precise borders remained unresolved amid the chaos of World War I, the Paris Peace Conference, and the League of Nations' formation. With the League failing to reach a verdict for a year, Yugoslavia, spurred by the Mirdita rebellion, asserted territorial claims and deployed troops to the border. As tensions escalated, League intervention became imperative. The conflict concluded after the United Kingdom recognized Albania, prompting Yugoslavia to withdraw its forces. Subsequently, diplomatic ties were established between Albania and Yugoslavia, leading to Yugoslavia's acknowledgment of Albanian sovereignty.
See main article: Koplik War. The Koplik War was a series of battles that occurred between Albania and the Kingdom of Serbs, Croats and Slovenes in 1920 and 1921 mostly in Northern Albania in the town of Koplik[7] [8]
See main article: WW2 in Albania and WW2 in Yugoslavia. During World War II, Albania was occupied by fascist Italy and later by Nazi Germany. Yugoslavia, after its invasion by the Axis powers in 1941, was fragmented into several puppet states, with resistance movements emerging within both countries. The Partisans, led by Josip Broz Tito in Yugoslavia, and the Communist resistance in Albania, led by Enver Hoxha, both received support from the Allies and briefly cooperated during the war.
In the immediate post-war period, both countries emerged as socialist states under communist leaderships. Yugoslavia, under Tito, initially sought to bring Albania into its sphere of influence, proposing a federation that would include both nations. Hoxha, however, was wary of Yugoslav intentions, suspecting that this was a bid to annex Albania.
The Tito–Stalin split or the Soviet–Yugoslav split was the culmination of a conflict between the political leaderships of Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union, under Josip Broz Tito and Joseph Stalin, respectively, in the years following World War II. Although presented by both sides as an ideological dispute, the conflict was as much the product of a geopolitical struggle in the Balkans that also involved Albania, Bulgaria, and the communist insurgency in Greece, which Tito's Yugoslavia supported and the Soviet Union secretly opposed, Albania under Hoxha sided firmly with Stalin. Hoxha accused Tito of betraying Marxism–Leninism principles and attempting to dominate Albania. This led to Albania severing all ties with Yugoslavia and aligning itself closely with the Soviet Union.
Albania's anti-Yugoslav stance was reflected in its domestic and foreign policies, with Hoxha's regime purging pro-Yugoslav elements within the Party of Labour of Albania and intensifying Propaganda against Yugoslavia.[9] [10]
See main article: Albanian-Yugoslav border conflict (1948-1954).
The Albanian–Yugoslav border conflict, was a period of armed confrontations between the armed forces of Albania and Yugoslavia between the years 1948 and 1954. This period of heightened tensions between Albania and Yugoslavia stemmed from territorial disputes and ideological divisions between the Yugoslav Leader Josip Broz Tito and Albanian Leader Enver Hoxha.[11] During the Cold War period, the border between Albania and Yugoslavia became one of the most contentious in the Eastern Bloc.[12]
The conflict also encompassed contentious issues, including the status of Kosovo, with its significant Albanian population. Hoxha's regime regarded Kosovo as part of its historical and ethnic territory, further fueling the tensions between the two nations.
The Sigurimi, Albania's secret police, played a significant role in fomenting separatism in Kosovo and advocating for the idea of a "Greater Albania".[13] The Sigurimi actively supported early planners in exile, working to cultivate support for an independent Kosovo among Albanians in Yugoslavia. It was reported that Hoxha brought Albanian separatists into Yugoslavia to advance his aim of supporting separatism in Kosovo and implementing the Greater Albania project, as asserted by authors and the Yugoslav government.[14] [15]
Operation Valuable was a covert operation conducted during the Cold War by the United Kingdom and the United States in collaboration with other Western Bloc nations. The operation aimed to overthrow the communist regime of Albanian ruler Enver Hoxha as part of broader efforts to counter communist influence around the world and install pro-Western leaders. It involved strategic military actions, incorporating air, naval, and ground assets in pursuit of its objectives.[16] As part of the operation, MI6 and the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) launched a joint covert operation using Albanian expatriates as agents. Other anti-communist Albanians and Europeans from other nations worked as agents for Greek and Italian intelligence services, some supported by MI6 and the CIA. Many of the agents were caught, put on trial, and either shot or condemned to long prison terms of penal labor
As Operation Valuable began to unfold, Yugoslav authorities closely monitored the activities of Western operatives and insurgents within Albania. Yugoslavia's intelligence services played a crucial role in detecting and disrupting these activities.[17] [18]
Following the death of Stalin in 1953 and the subsequent de-Stalinization policies of Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev, Albania grew increasingly isolated within the Eastern Bloc. Hoxha rejected Khrushchev's reforms and sought a new ally in Maoist China. The Albania-China alliance, which began in the 1960s, further deepened the rift between Albania and Yugoslavia, with Hoxha using Chinese support to bolster Albania's independence from both Soviet and Yugoslav influence.[19] [20]
The rivalry between Albania and Yugoslavia began to wane in the 1980s as both countries faced internal challenges. Yugoslavia was dealing with the rise of separatist movements, particularly in Kosovo, where the Albanian majority sought greater autonomy. Albania, on the other hand, was increasingly isolated after the death of Hoxha in 1985 and the gradual weakening of its alliance with China.
The Kosovo War was an armed conflict in Kosovo that lasted from 28 February 1998 until 11 June 1999.[21] [22] [23] It was fought between the forces of the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia (i.e. Serbia and Montenegro), which controlled Kosovo before the war, and the Kosovo Albanian separatist militia known as the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA). The conflict ended when the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) intervened by beginning air strikes in March 1999 which resulted in Yugoslav forces withdrawing from Kosovo.
The 2008 Kosovo declaration of independence, which proclaimed the Republic of Kosovo to be a state independent from Serbia, was adopted at a meeting held on 17 February 2008 by 109 out of the 120 members of the Assembly of Kosovo, including the Prime Minister of Kosovo, Hashim Thaçi, and by the President of Kosovo, Fatmir Sejdiu (who was not a member of the Assembly). It was the second declaration of independence by Kosovo's Albanian-majority political institutions; the first was proclaimed on 7 September 1990.
After the Breakup of Yugoslavia on 27 April 1992 On 21 May 2006, Montenegro held a referendum which showed 55.4% of voters in favour of independence, just above the 55% required by the referendum. This was followed on 5 June 2006 by Serbia's declaration of independence, marking the re-emergence of Serbia as an independent state. The National Assembly of Serbia declared Serbia to be the legal successor to the former state union.The Assembly of Kosovo unilaterally declared independence from Serbia on 17 February 2008. Serbia immediately condemned the declaration and continues to deny any statehood to Kosovo. The declaration has sparked varied responses from the international community. Status-neutral talks between Serbia and Kosovo-Albanian authorities are held in Brussels, mediated by the EU.[24] Both albania and serbia are still rival because albania strongly support a Unification between Albania and Kosovo while serbia oppose it. The relationship between modern Albania and the successor states of Yugoslavia, particularly Serbia, remains complex, influenced by the historical animosities of the 20th century and ongoing disputes over Kosovo.