Syrian Army Explained

Unit Name:Syrian Army
Start Date:1 August 1945[1]
1971 (current form)
Type:Army
Role:Land warfare
Size:130,000[2] ----Military age: 18 18 years of age for compulsory and voluntary military service; conscript service obligation is 18 months; women are not conscripted but may volunteer to serve; re-enlistment obligation 5 years, with retirement after 15 years or age 40 (enlisted) or 20 years or age 45 [3] [4] ----
Command Structure: Syrian Armed Forces
Garrison:Damascus
Motto:"Arabic: حُمَاةَ الدِّيَارِ" (Guardians of the Homeland)
Colors:
Anniversaries:August 1st
Battles:
Commander1:Marshal Bashar al-Assad
Commander1 Label:President of Syria
Commander2:Gen. Ali Mahmoud Abbas
Commander2 Label:Minister of Defense
Commander3:Gen. Abdul Karim Mahmoud Ibrahim
Commander3 Label:Chief of the General Staff

The Syrian Army (SyA or SA), officially the Syrian Arab Army (SyAA or SAA) (Arabic: الجيش العربي السوري|al-Jayš al-ʿArabī as-Sūrī), is the land force branch of the Syrian Armed Forces. It is the dominant military service of the four uniformed services, controlling the most senior posts in the armed forces, and has the greatest manpower, approximately 80 percent of the combined services. The Syrian Army originated in local military forces formed by the French after World War I, after France obtained a mandate over the region. It officially came into being in 1945, before Syria obtained full independence the following year.

Since 1946, it has played a major role in Syria's governance, mounting six military coups: two in 1949, including the March 1949 Syrian coup d'état and the August 1949 coup by Colonel Sami al-Hinnawi, and one each in 1951, 1954, 1963, 1966, and 1970. It has fought four wars with Israel (1948, the Six-Day War in 1967, the Yom Kippur War of 1973, and 1982 Lebanon War) and one with Jordan (Black September in Jordan, 1970). An armored division was also deployed to Saudi Arabia in 1990–91 during the Gulf War, but saw little action. From 1976 to 2005 it was the major pillar of the Syrian occupation of Lebanon. Internally, it played a major part in suppressing the 1979–82 Islamist uprising in Syria, and since early 2011 has been heavily engaged in fighting the Syrian Civil War, the most violent and prolonged war the Syrian Army has taken part in since its establishment in the 1940s.

History

1919–1945

In 1919, the French formed the Troupes spéciales du Levant as part of the Army of the Levant in the French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon. The former with 8,000 men later grew into both the Syrian and Lebanese armies. This force was used primarily as auxiliaries in support of French troops, and senior officer posts were held by Frenchmen, although Syrians were allowed to hold commissions below the rank of major.[5] The Syrian officer corps of the Troupes spéciales du Levant mainly consisted former officers of the Ottoman Army and members of Syria's ethnic and religious minorities.[6] By 1927, more than 35% of Syrian soldiers came from the auxiliary troops; they were traditionally Kurdish, Druze or Circassian. After the repression of the Great Syrian Revolt by General Maurice Gamelin, commander of the Troupes du Levant, they were strengthened and became the main forces of the French apparatus.[7]

In 1927, the force was augmented by North African infantry (tirailleurs) and cavalry (spahis), French Foreign Legion, Troupes de marine infantry and artillery units (both French and Senegalese). The whole force constituted the Army of the Levant.

1945–1970

In August 1945, the Syrian Army was formed mainly from Army of the Levant. As Syria gained independence in 1946, its leaders envisioned a division-sized army. On June 19, 1947, the Syrian Army took the survivors of Pan Am Flight 121 to the Presbyterian mission hospital at Deir ez-Zor. The 1st Brigade was ready by the time of the Syrian war against Israel on May 15, 1948. It consisted of two infantry battalions and one armored battalion. The 2nd Brigade was organized during the 1948 Arab–Israeli War and also included two infantry battalions and one armored battalion.[8]

At the time of the 1948 Arab–Israeli War, the army was small, poorly armed, and poorly trained. "Paris had relied primarily on French regulars to keep the peace in Syria and had neglected indigenous forces. Consequently, training was lackadaisical, discipline lax, and staff work almost unheard of. ... there were about 12,000 men in the Syrian army. These troops were mostly grouped into three infantry brigades and an armored force of about battalion size," writes Pollack.

Between 1949 and 1966, a series of military coups destroyed the stability of the government and any remaining professionalism within the army. In March 1949, the chief of staff, General Husni al-Za'im, installed himself as president. Two more military dictators followed by December 1949. General Adib Shishakli then held power until deposed in the 1954 Syrian coup d'etat. Further coups followed, each attended by a purge of the officer corps to remove supporters of the losers from the force. 'Discipline in the army broke down across the board as units and their commanders pledged their allegiance to different groups and parties. Indeed, by the late 1950s, the situation had become so bad that Syrian officers regularly disobeyed the orders of superiors who belonged to different ethnic or political groups.

The 1963 Syrian coup d'état had as one of its key objectives the seizure of the Al-Kiswah military camp, home to the 70th Armored Brigade. In June 1963, Syria took part in the Iraqi military campaign against the Kurds by providing aircraft, armoured vehicles and a force of 6,000 soldiers. Syrian troops crossed the Iraqi border and moved into the Kurdish town of Zakho in pursuit of Barzani's fighters.[9] There was another 1966 Syrian coup d'etat.

However, in 1967 the army did appear to have some strength. It had around 70,000 personnel, roughly 550 tanks and assault guns, 500 APCs, and nearly 300 artillery pieces. The army had sixteen brigades: twelve infantry, two armored (probably including the 70th Armored), and two mechanized. The Syrian government deployed twelve of the sixteen brigades to the Golan, including both armored brigades and one mechanized brigade. Three 'brigade groups', each comprising four brigades, were deployed: the 12th in the north, holding the sector from the B'nat Ya'acov bridge to the slopes of Mount Hermon, the 35th in the south from the B'nat Ya'acov bridge to the Yarmuk River border with Jordan, and the 42nd in reserve, earmarked for a theater-level counterattack role. During the Six-Day War Israeli assault of the Golan heights, the Syrian army failed to counterattack the Israelis as the Israelis breached the Syrian positions. While Syrian units fought hard whenever the Israelis entered their fields of fire, no attempts appear to have been made to exploit Israeli disorientation and confusion during the initial assault.

Judging from reports of 1967–1970, including the reporting of the 5th Infantry Division in 1970, the Army appears to have formed its first divisions during this period. The 1st and 3rd Armored Division, and 5th, 7th, and 9th Mechanized Infantry Divisions were all formed prior to 1973.[10] Samuel M. Katz writes that after Hafez al-Assad gained power in November 1970, the army expanded to the five divisions listed above, plus ten independent brigades, an artillery rocket brigade (the 69th), and "a reinforced brigade variously termed the 70th Armored Brigade or the Assad Republican Guard. It is today known as the Armored Defense Force; as Assad's praetorian guard it is stationed in and around Damascus and subordinate to the Defense Companies under the command of Assad's brother Rifa'at."[11]

1970–2010

On 18 September 1970, the Syrian government became involved in Black September in Jordan when it sent a reinforced armored brigade to aid the Palestine Liberation Organization. Syrian armored units crossed the border and overran Irbid with the help of local Palestinian forces. They encountered several Jordanian Army detachments, but rebuffed them without major difficulty. Two days later, the 5th Infantry Division, heavily reinforced, was also sent into Jordan. Two armored brigades were attached to the division, bringing its tank strength up to over 300 T-55s and its manpower to over 16,000. The division entered Jordan at ar-Ramtha, destroyed a company of Jordanian Centurion tanks there, and continued directly towards Amman.

Pollack says it is likely that they intended to overthrow the Jordanian monarchy itself. Despite defeating the Jordanian Army at al-Ramtha on 21 September, after fierce air attacks on 22 September, the Syrians stopped the attack and began to retreat.The retreat was caused by Jordan's appeal for international aid : "The report said that Hussein “not only appealed for the moral and diplomatic support of the United Kingdom and the United States, coupled with the threat of international action, but had also asked for an air strike by Israel against Syrian troops.” (New York Post)[12]

After 1970 further Syrian engagements included:

The Syrian armed forces have also been involved in suppressing dissident movements within Syria, for example the Islamist uprising in Syria in 1979–1982. In March 1980 the 3rd Armored Division and detachments from the Defense Companies arrived in Aleppo. The division was under the command of General Shafiq Fayadh, Hafiz Assad's first cousin. The troops sealed "off whole quarters and carr[ied] out house-to-house searches, often preceded by tank fire."[14] Hundreds of suspects were rounded up. Only two conventional Army brigades deployed to Hama in 1982, the 3rd Armored Division's 47th Armored and 21st Mechanized Brigades. Three quarters of the officers and one third of the soldiers in the two brigades were Alawites.[15] Most of the repression was carried out by the Defense Companies and the Special Forces. Meanwhile, the Special Forces were isolating and combing through Hama, killing and capturing suspected government opponents.[16]

Syrian forces fought Israel during the 1982 Lebanon War.

In 1984, Major General Ali Haidar's Special Forces were instrumental in blocking an abortive attempt by Rifaat Assad and his Defense Companies to seize the capital.[17] Fayadh's 3rd Armoured Division moved into the capital to join Haidar's forces in the confrontation with the Defense Companies. The 3rd Armoured Division, it seems, had historically been based at al-Qutayfah, near Damascus.[18]

Bennett dates the establishment of corps in the Syrian Army to 1985. Writing forty years later, Tom Cooper says "..despite the establishment of.. corps.. most division commanders continued reporting directly to the President. Correspondingly, not only the Chief of Staff of the Syrian Armed Forces but also the Corps HQ exercised only a limited operational control over the Army's divisions." Declassified CIA documents from February 1987 say that the 3rd Corps and 17th and 18th Armoured Divisions were established in 1986.[19]

The 9th Armoured Division served in the 1991 Persian Gulf War as the Arab Joint Forces Command North reserve and saw little action.[20]

In 1994, Haidar expressed objections to the Syrian president's decision to bring Bashar home from his studies in Britain and groom him for the succession after the death of Basil, the eldest Assad son. Soon afterwards, on 3 September 1994, Jane's Defence Weekly reported that then-President Hafez Assad had dismissed at least 16 senior military commanders. Among them was Haidar, then commander of the Special Forces, and General Shafiq Fayadh, a cousin of the President who had commanded the "crack" 3rd Armored Division for nearly two decades. The 3rd Armored Division was "deployed around Damascus." JDW commented that "the Special Forces and the 3rd Armored Division, along with the 1st Armored Division are key elements in the security structure that protects Assad's government. Any command changes involving those formations have considerable political significance." Post-uprising reporting indicated the 1st Armored Division had historically been at al-Kiswah.

On 29 September 2004, Jane's Defence Weekly reported that Syria had begun to redeploy elements of one or more Syrian Army special forces regiments based in the coastal hills a few kilometres south of Beirut in Lebanon. A senior Lebanese Army officer told JDW that the 3,000 troops involved would return to Syria.[21]

Cordesman wrote that in 2006 the Syrian Army had "organized two corps that reported to the Land Forces General Staff and the Commander of the Land Force."

As of 2010, the army's formations included three army corps (the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd), eight armored divisions (with one independent armored brigade), three mechanized divisions, one armored-special forces division and ten independent airborne-special forces brigades. The army had 11 divisional formations reported in 2011, with a fall in the number of armored divisions reported from the 2010 edition from eight to seven. The independent armored brigade had been replaced by an independent tank regiment.

In 2009 and 2010, according to the International Institute for Strategic Studies in London, the Syrian army comprised 220,000 regular personnel, and the entire armed forces (including the navy, air force and air defenses) had 325,000 regular troops.[22] Additionally, it had about 290,000 reservists.[23]

Syrian Civil War

Military equipment in April 2011 (including storage)

See main article: List of equipment of the Syrian Army. The vast majority of Syrian military equipment was Soviet manufactured.[24] [25]

Defections

At October 1, 2011, according to high-ranking defected Syrian Colonel Riad Assaad, 10,000 soldiers, including high-ranking officers, had deserted the Syrian Army.[26] Some of these defectors had formed the Free Syrian Army, engaging in combat with security forces and soldiers in what would turn into the Syrian Civil War.

At 16 November 2011, Rami Abdel Rahman, the head of the UK-based Syrian Observatory for Human Rights, however estimated that less than 1,000 soldiers had deserted the Syrian Army; at the same moment, an FSA battalion commander claimed that the FSA embraced 25,000 army deserters.[27] Also in November 2011, the Free Syrian Army or the website of France 24 estimated the Syrian Army at 200,000 troops.[28] According to General Mustafa al-Sheikh, one of the most senior defectors, however, in January 2012 the Syrian forces were estimated at 280,000 including conscripts.[29]

By March 15, 2012, many more soldiers, unhappy with crackdowns on pro-democracy protesters, switched sides and a Turkish official said that 60,000 soldiers had deserted the Syrian army, including 20,000 since February 20. It was added that most of the deserters were junior officers and soldiers.[30] By 5 July 2012, the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights estimated "tens of thousands" soldiers to have defected. By August 2012, 40 Brigadier generals from the Army had defected to the opposition army, out of a total of 1,200 generals.[31]

On June 14, 2013, 73 Syrian Army officers and their families, some 202 people in total, sought refuge in Turkey. Amongst their number were seven generals and 20 colonels.[32] In 2013, Agence France Press wrote on 'Syria's diminished security forces.'[33]

Strength impaired

Up until July 2012, the scale of defections from the Syrian Army, though hard to quantify, was too small to make an impact on the strength of that army, according to Aram Nerguizian from the Washington-based Center for Strategic and International Studies. Strategically important units of the Syrian armed forces are always controlled by Alawite officers; defecting soldiers – by July 2012 "tens of thousands" according to the Syrian Observatory for Human Rights – are mainly Sunni without access to vital command and control, Nerguizian said, however the formed Syrian Minister of Defense General Dawoud Rajiha killed in the 18 July 2012 Damascus bombing was a Christian.Analyst Joseph Holliday wrote in 2013 that "the Assad government has from the beginning of the conflict been unable to mobilize all of its forces without risking largescale defections. The single greatest liability that the Assad regime has faced in employing its forces has been the challenge of relying on units to carry out orders to brutalize the opposition."[34] This has resulted in Bashar's following his father's precedent by attaching regular army units to more reliable forces (Special Forces, Republican Guard, or 4th Armored Division). When Hafez al-Assad directed the suppression of revolts in Hama in 1982, this technique was also used.

In 2014, analyst Charles Lister wrote that "As of April 1, 2014, the SAA had incurred at least 35,601 fatalities, which when combined with a reasonable ratio of 3 wounded personnel for every soldier killed and approximately 50,000 defections, suggests the SAA presently commands roughly 125,000 personnel. This loss of manpower is exacerbated by Syria's longentrenched problem of having to selectively deploy forces based on their perceived trustworthiness."[35] The International Institute for Strategic Studies in London calculated that by August 2013 the strength of the Syrian army had, compared with 2010, roughly been cut in half, due to defections, desertions and casualties: it now counted 110,000 troops.

The Syrian Arab Army suffers from serious recruitment issues as the Syrian Civil War drags on, with military age men across sectarian lines no longer willing to join or serve their conscription terms. These issues are especially notable among the Druze population, who have clashed with regime security forces and broken Druze youths out of regime imprisonment to avoid them serving in the army.[36] Increasingly, Assad's Alawite base of support refuse to send their sons to the military due to massive casualty rates among military age men in their community; according to pro oppositions sources a third of 250,000 Alawite men of fighting age have been killed in the Syrian Civil War, leading to major tensions between the sect and the Syrian government.[37]

As of mid-2018, then-Israeli Defence Minister Avigdor Lieberman said that the Syrian Arab Army had regained its pre-2011 strength levels, recovering from manpower shortages earlier in the Syrian Civil War.[38]

Roles of 3rd, 11th, 17th and 18th Divisions

The 3rd Armored Division has deployed elements of three brigades from its bases around Qutayfah to Deraa, Zabadani, and Hama, while the 11th Armored Division has stayed close to its bases in Homs and Hama.[39]

The European Council named Major General Wajih Mahmud as commander of the 18th Armored Division in the Official Journal of the European Union on 15 November 2011, sanctioning him for violence committed in Homs.[40] Henry Boyd of the IISS noted that "in Homs, the 18th Armored Division was reinforced by Special Forces units and ... by elements of the 4th Division under Maher's de facto command."[41]

Information from Holliday 2013 suggests that the reserve armored division is the 17th (rather than any other designation), which was responsible for eastern Syria.[42] The division's 93rd Brigade left Idlib to secure Raqqa Governorate in early 2012.[43] Following the reported capture of Raqqa on 3–6 March 2013, elements of the 17th Division remained under siege to the north of the city in October 2013.[44]

Relationship with National Defense Force

The National Defense Force is under the control and supervision of the Syrian Army[45] and acts in an infantry role, directly fighting against rebels on the ground and running counter-insurgency operations in co-ordination with the army which provides them logistical and artillery support.

Struggling with reliability issues and defections, officers of the SAA increasingly prefer the part-time volunteers of the NDF, who they regard as more motivated and loyal, over regular army conscripts to conduct infantry operations and act as support for advancing tanks.[46]

An officer in Homs, who asked not to be identified, said the army was increasingly playing a logistical and directive role, while NDF fighters act as combatants on the ground.[47]

The NDF continues to play a significant role in military operations across Syria despite the formation of other elite units, many of which receive direct assistance from Russia.

Demographics

In 2011, the majority of the Syrian military were Sunni, but most of the military leadership were Alawites. Alawites made up 12% of the pre-war Syrian population, but 70% of the career soldiers in the Syrian Army.[48] A similar imbalance is seen in the officer corps, where some 80% of the officers are Alawites. The military's most elite divisions, the Republican Guard and the 4th Armored Division, which are commanded by Bashar al-Assad's brother Maher, are exclusively Alawite. Most of Syria's 300,000 conscripts in 2011 were Sunni.[49]

Since 2022, the Minister of Defense and also Deputy Commander-in-Chief of the Army and the Armed Forces Lieutenant General Ali Mahmoud Abbas, and Major General Mufid Hassan, Deputy Chief of the General Staff, are some of the Sunni Muslims in the positions of power.[50] Some volunteer brigades, such as Arab Nationalist Guard, are made up of Sunni Syrians and other Sunnis from the Middle Eastern region that adhere to pan-Arab ideals.[51]

Structure in 2001

Before 2011, it was difficult to access reliable information about the SAA because of the Damascus government's sensitivity to potential espionage, particularly by Israel.[52]

Richard Bennett wrote in 2001 that "..corps [were] formed in 1985 to give the Army more flexibility and to improve combat efficiency by decentralizing the command structure, absorbing at least some of the lessons learned during the Israeli invasion of the Lebanon in 1982."[53] The organization and military doctrine of the army followed the Soviet model.[54]

Richard Bennett's estimate of the 2001 order of battle was:

Bennett said the 1st Corps also [had] four independent special forces regiments, including two trained for heliborne commando operations against the Israeli signals intelligence & observation posts on Mount Hermon and elsewhere in the Golan Heights.

The IISS listed smaller formations in 2006 as:[55]

Protecting Damascus:

Basic structure until 2011:[57]

Structure in 2022

Between 2015 and 2018, the Syrian Arab Army underwent many structural changes, with the cooperation of Russia and Iran.[58] In addition, new units were created by 2021. As of August 2022, according to Gregory Waters, the structure as the order of battle (at full strength) was:[59] [60]

Units reporting to the Chief of Staff

Special Forces units formed during the Syrian Civil War:

Military equipment

See main article: List of equipment of the Syrian Army.

The majority of Syrian military equipment was manufactured by Soviet Union, Russia, China and Iran.[105] [106] Military equipment of the Syrian Army as of 2020:[107] [108]

Uniforms, weapons and rank insignia

Uniforms and personnel equipment

Service uniforms for Syrian officers generally follow the British Army style, although army combat clothing follows the Soviet model.[109] Each uniform has two coats: a long one for dress and a short jacket for informal wear. Army officer uniforms are khaki in summer, olive in winter. All Army (including paratroops and special forces) and Air Defense Force personnel wear camouflage uniforms. Among the camouflage are Red Lizard, Syrian Leaf patterns, EMR Desert; a locally-made copies of the ERDL and M81 Woodland.

Officers have a variety of headgear, including a service cap, garrison cap, and beret (linen in summer and wool in winter).[110] The color of the beret varies according to the officer's unit. The most common beret color is black, for Infantry, Engineering, Signals and supporting arms personnel, followed by green, for Armored, Mechanized and Artillery personnel, red for the Republican Guard and Military Police, and maroon (blue) for the Special Forces.[111]

Since 2009, the SAA had acquired large numbers of Chinese-produced combat gear, including helmets and bullet proof vests.[112] In 2011, the standard issue combat helmets were the olive Chinese QGF-02, and the Soviet SSh-68 for the reserve forces.[113] Both of them can be equipped with the Syrian Leaf camouflage helmet covers. Since 2015, some regular units were equipped with 6B7 helmets from Russia. Standard protective gear for all Army units were (PASGT) TAT-BA-7 bullet-proof vests. The Republican Guard and Special Forces were the only units equipped with ACH, FAST, 6B47 helmets and 6B45, Ruyin-3 ballistic vests. The Syrian military also provides NBC uniforms to soldiers to remain effective in an environment affected by biological or chemical agents. This uniform consists of a Russian-made Model GP-5, PMK and ShMS-41 masks.[114]

Service weapons

See main article: List of equipment of the Syrian Army. Service weapons of the Syrian Arab Army consist of stocks of Cold War-era arms. Main service pistols of the Syrian Army are Makarov PM and Stechkin-APS. Main service assault rifles are Soviet AKM/AKMS, AK-74, Chinese Type 56 and Sa vz. 58.[115] Main service carbines are AKS-74U and copies of Belgian FN FAL. Syrian Army uses the Dragunov SVD sniper rifles and derivatives like the Tabuk, PSL. Army has also modern snipers like Steyr SSG 69,[116] Heckler & Koch G3 and Syrian-made Golan S-01.[117] The most widely used machine guns are RPK, PKM, Type 73,[118] NSV and PKP Pecheneg.[119] Until 2011, the procurement of large numbers of AK-74Ms was planned to replace the AK(M) and other derivatives, the Civil War put a halt to this large scale re-equipment programme.[112] Since 2015, Syrians have received big equipment assistance from Russia.[120]

Ranks

See main article: Military ranks of Syria. The rank insignia of commissioned officers.

The rank insignia of non-commissioned officers and enlisted personnel.

Awards

Although some twenty-five orders and medals are authorized, generally only senior officers and warrant officers wear medal ribbons. The following are some important Syrian awards: Order of Umayyad, Medal of Military Honor, the War Medal, Medal for Courage, Yarmuk Medal, Wounded in Action Medal, and Medal of 8 March 1963.

Chief of the General Staff of the Army

See main article: Chief of the General Staff (Syria). The Chief of the General Staff of the Army and Armed Forces (Arabic: رئيس هيئة الأركان العامة للجيش والقوات المسلحة|Rayiys hayyat al'arkan aleamat liljaysh walquaat almusalaha) is the professional head of the Syrian Armed Forces and the Syrian Army. The Chief of the General Staff is appointed by the President of Syria, who is the commander-in-chief of the Armed Forces.[121] As of 2024, the Chief of the General Staff has been Lt. Gen. Abdul Karim Mahmoud Ibrahim, who was appointed to the role by Syrian President Bashar Al-Assad.[122] In April 2022, Maj. Gen. Mufid Hassan was also appointed as the Deputy Chief of the General Staff.[123]

Further reading

External links

Notes and References

  1. Syria News 1 August 2013, President Bashar Al-Assad visits soldiers to mark Army Day and pledge victory. 3 August 2013. YouTube. 2015-10-12. https://web.archive.org/web/20160324124620/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fIs7ruK24rY. 2016-03-24. live.
  2. The Military Balance 2023 page 354
  3. Web site: The World Factbook. cia.gov. 2013-06-15.
  4. Web site: CIA World Factbook . CIA . 2013-06-14 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160322125136/https://www.cia.gov/library//publications/the-world-factbook/fields/2024.html . 2016-03-22 . dead .
  5. Bou-Nacklie, N. E. “Les Troupes Speciales: Religious and Ethnic Recruitment, 1916-46.” International Journal of Middle East Studies, vol. 25, no. 4, Cambridge University Press, 1993, pp. 645–60, http://www.jstor.org/stable/164539 .
  6. Perlmutter . Amos . From Obscurity to Rule: The Syrian Army and the Ba'th Party . The Western Political Quarterly . 22 . 4 . 1969 . 830 . 10.2307/447038.
  7. Jean-David Mizrahi, « Armée, état et nation au moyen-orient. La naissance des troupes spéciales du Levant à l'époque du mandat français, Syrie, 1919-1930 », Guerres mondiales et conflits contemporains, 2002/3 (n° 207), p. 107-123. DOI : 10.3917/gmcc.207.0107. URL : https://www.cairn.info/revue-guerres-mondiales-et-conflits-contemporains-2002-3-page-107.htm
  8. Morris, Benny (2008), 1948: A History of the First Arab–Israeli War, p. 251. Yale University Press. .
  9. Book: Vanly, I. C. . The Kurds in Syria and Lebanon . The Kurds: A Contemporary Overview . P. G. . Kreyenbroek . S. . Sperl . Routledge . 1992 . 0-415-07265-4 . 151–2 . registration . https://archive.org/details/kurds00pkre/page/151 .
  10. Book: Hanna Batatu. Syria's Peasantry, the Descendants of Its Lesser Rural Notables, and Their Politics. 27 March 2013. 1999. Princeton University Press. 978-0-691-00254-5. 228. https://web.archive.org/web/20131231140754/http://books.google.com/books?id=4_Cvhg3YHIoC&pg=PA228. 31 December 2013. live. dmy-all.
  11. Samuel M. Katz, Arab Armies of the Middle East Wars, Osprey Publishing Men-at-Arms 194, 1988, 13.
  12. British documents, sealed for 30 years, now reveal that Hussein sent “a series of messages” to the British Embassy in Amman
  13. An order of battle of the Syrian Army in October 1973 can be found in Colonel Trevor Dupuy, Elusive Victory: The Arab–Israeli Wars 1947–74, MacDonald and Jane's, London, 1978
  14. Patrick Seale, Asad: The Struggle for the Middle East (London: I.B. Tauris & Co, 1988), p.327, via Holliday 2013, 12.
  15. Nikolaos van Dam, The Struggle for Power in Syria: Politics and Society under Asad and the Ba'th Party, (New York: I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd, 2011), p.114, via Holliday 2013, 12.
  16. van Dam, 2011, p.104, via Holliday 2013.
  17. Web site: Syria's Praetorian Guards: A Primer. Middle East Intelligence Bulletin. Vol. 2 No. 7 (5 August 2000). 20 May 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20120704135413/http://www.meforum.org/meib/articles/0008_s2.htm. 2012-07-04. live.
  18. Web site: Is the Syrian Army Falling Apart?. matthewaid.com. 2012-03-16. https://web.archive.org/web/20140116084954/http://www.matthewaid.com/post/17259349392/is-the-syrian-army-falling-apart. 2014-01-16. live.
  19. https://www.cia.gov/readingroom/document/cia-rdp05s02029r000300890001-6 Near East and South Asia Analysis
  20. Norman Schwarzkopf, It Doesn't Take A Hero, Bantam Books, 1993, 467–69.
  21. Nicholas Blandford, "Syria reduced troop strength in Lebanon," Jane's Defence Weekly, 29 September 2004, 31.
  22. [International Institute for Strategic Studies]
  23. Web site: Syrian defections hurt army morale . . 6 January 2014 . 5 July 2012 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131209202201/http://www.iol.co.za/news/world/syria-defections-hurt-army-morale-1.1334774#.Ui_EOsaUT6c . 2013-12-09 . live .
  24. Web site: Security . Global . Syrian Army equipment .
  25. Web site: Archived copy . 2018-11-30 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160202002911/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+sy0119%29 . 2016-02-02 . live .
  26. News: Over 10,000 soldiers have deserted Syria army, says high-ranking defector. Haaretz. 1 October 2011. 6 January 2014. Reuters and Deutsche Presse-Agentur. https://web.archive.org/web/20131116060502/http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/over-10-000-soldiers-have-deserted-syria-army-says-high-ranking-defector-1.387494. 2013-11-16. live.
  27. News: Atassi. Basma. Free Syrian Army grows in influence. Al Jazeera. 16 November 2011. 6 January 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140117055138/http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/11/20111116154829885782.html. 2014-01-17. live.
  28. News: Free Syrian Army soldier: "We lack weapons". France 24. 18 November 2011. 7 January 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20131020001421/http://observers.france24.com/content/20111118-free-syrian-army-soldier-lack-weapons-homs-army-defectors-bashar-al-assad-syrian-national-council. 2013-10-20. live.
  29. News: Syria's army weakened by growing desertions. Reuters. 1 January 2012. 2017-07-02. https://web.archive.org/web/20151001210410/http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/01/13/us-syria-defections-idUSTRE80C2IV20120113. 2015-10-01. live.
  30. News: Abu-Nasr. Donna. Emre. Peker. Syrian Armed Forces Desertion Said to Surge to 60,000. Bloomberg. 15 March 2012. 7 January 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20130921055615/http://www.bloomberg.com/news/2012-03-15/syria-loses-20-000-troops-as-deserters-flee-turkey-says-1-.html. 2013-09-21. live.
  31. News: Chief of protocol at the Syrian presidential palace denies defection. Al Arabiya. 9 August 2012. 2012-08-09. https://web.archive.org/web/20120809084650/http://english.alarabiya.net/articles/2012/08/09/231222.html. 9 August 2012. dead. dmy-all.
  32. Web site: Dozens of Syrian officers defect to Turkey as Russia warns against arming rebels. 14 June 2013. Haaretz. 2013-06-15. https://web.archive.org/web/20130615162150/http://www.haaretz.com/news/middle-east/dozens-of-syrian-officers-defect-to-turkey-as-russia-warns-against-arming-rebels-1.529896. 2013-06-15. live.
  33. News: Syria's diminished security forces. Agence France-Presse. 27 August 2013. 14 May 2014. https://web.archive.org/web/20140714160112/http://www.dailystar.com.lb/News/Middle-East/2013/Aug-28/228953-syrias-diminished-security-forces.ashx#axzz31ko8ddGF. 2014-07-14. live.
  34. Holliday, 2013, 11, 12.
  35. Web site: Lister . Charles . DYNAMIC STALEMATE: SURVEYING SYRIA'S MILITARY LANDSCAPE . Brookings Doha Center . May 2014.
  36. Web site: DEFECTED GENERAL: 'DRUZE DO NOT REPRESENT A COG IN THE REGIME MACHINE' . Syria Direct . 30 March 2015 . 7 April 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150402120510/http://syriadirect.org/main/36-interviews/1946-defected-general-druze-do-not-represent-a-cog-in-the-regime-machine . 2015-04-02 . live .
  37. News: In Syria's war, Alawites pay heavy price for loyalty to Bashar al-Assad . The Daily Telegraph . Sherlock . Ruth . 7 April 2015 . 7 April 2015 . https://web.archive.org/web/20150407102223/http://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/11518232/In-Syrias-war-Alawites-pay-heavy-price-for-loyalty-to-Bashar-al-Assad.html . 2015-04-07 . live .
  38. News: Israel sees Syrian army growing beyond pre-civil war size . 10 January 2019 . DefenceWeb . Reuters . 8 August 2018 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190111121418/http://www.defenceweb.co.za/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=52694&catid=74&Itemid=30 . 11 January 2019 . live . dmy-all .
  39. Holliday 2013, 26, citing "By All Means Necessary: Individual and Command Responsibility for Crimes against Humanity in Syria," Human Rights Watch, December 2011, p. 36; Syrian Observatory for Human Rights Facebook page, January 24, 2012; Syrian Revolution Coordinator's Union Facebook page, February 7, 2012; Local Coordination Committees website, November 15, 2012.
  40. Web site: Council Implementing Regulation (EU) No 1151/2011 of 14 November 2011 implementing Regulation (EU) No 442/2011 concerning restrictive measures in view of the situation in Syria. Official Journal of the European Union. 15 November 2011. PDF. 2012-10-07. https://web.archive.org/web/20130522232716/http://eur-lex.europa.eu/LexUriServ/LexUriServ.do?uri=OJ:L:2011:296:0003:0005:EN:PDF. 2013-05-22. live.
  41. Web site: Boyd. Henry. Shades of Hama and Grozny in Homs and Idlib. International Institute for Strategic Studies. 12 March 2012. 2012-08-11. https://web.archive.org/web/20120627152103/http://www.iiss.org/whats-new/iiss-experts-commentary/shades-of-hama-and-grozny-in-homs-and-idlib/. 2012-06-27. live.
  42. Holliday, 2013, 42, 46, 47. Holliday's sources include "Skype Interview with exiled former Syrian Army General Officer in Washington, DC on April 19, 2012."
  43. Holliday, 2013, 33, citing "Clashes between Syrian troops and army defectors kill at least 13," Washington Post, October 13, 2011; Syrian Revolution Coordinator's Union Facebook Page , November 13, 2012.
  44. Alice Martins, Watching Rebels Fight Among Themselves for the City of Raqqa, SyriaDeeply.org Beta, October 2, 2013.
  45. news24.com
  46. Iran's Secret Army. 22 November 2013. YouTube. 2015-10-12. https://web.archive.org/web/20160102205927/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZI_88ChjQtU. 2016-01-02. live.
  47. Web site: Insight: Battered by war, Syrian army creates its own replacement. Reuters. 21 April 2013. 2017-07-02. https://web.archive.org/web/20130601144630/http://www.reuters.com/article/2013/04/21/us-syria-crisis-paramilitary-insight-idUSBRE93K02R20130421. 2013-06-01. live.
  48. Web site: Background Note: Syria. US State Department. 14 September 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20170121022641/https://2009-2017.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/3580.htm. 21 January 2017. live.
  49. News: Syria's military: what does Assad have?. Reuters. 5 May 2011. 6 April 2011. https://web.archive.org/web/20110501081522/http://af.reuters.com/article/libyaNews/idAFLDE72S19O20110406. 1 May 2011. dead.
  50. Web site: Lund . Aron . 2022-05-23 . Can Assad's New Military Appointments Help Rebuild His Regime? . 2023-04-07 . . en.
  51. Web site: Pro-regime Sunni fighters in Aleppo defy sectarian narrative - Al-Monitor: the Pulse of the Middle East. Al-Monitor. 14 March 2014.
  52. Book: Ripley, Tim. Syrian army prepares for post-conflict challenges. Janes´s. 2017. 4.
  53. Richard M. Bennett, The Syrian Military: A Primer, Middle East Intelligence Bulletin, August/September 2001.
  54. Library of Congress Country Study Syria
  55. International Institute for Strategic Studies, The Military Balance 2006, p.208-9
  56. Web site: Archived copy . 2012-04-06 . https://web.archive.org/web/20120308142330/http://gradworks.umi.com/3330856.pdf . 2012-03-08 . live .
  57. Web site: The Syrian Army Doctrinal Order of Battle. 2013-12-30 . https://web.archive.org/web/20131101161447/http://www.understandingwar.org/sites/default/files/SyrianArmy-DocOOB.pdf . 2013-11-01 . live .
  58. Web site: Rebuilding the Syrian Military: The Threat to Israel. INSS Tel Aviv University. 6 September 2023. 25 November 2023. Eden Kaduri, Yehoshua Kalisky, Tal Avraham.
  59. Web site: The Lion and The Eagle: The Syrian Arab Army's Destruction and Rebirth. Middle East Institute. Gregory Waters. 18 July 2019. 20 September 2022.
  60. Web site: From Tiger Forces to the 16th Brigade: Russia's evolving Syrian proxies. Middle East Institute. Gregory Waters. 12 September 2022. 16 November 2023.
  61. Web site: Unit of the #Republican_Guard's 101st Regiment holds a massive storage depot in #Kernaz (at an old SRG base for training purposes).. Gregory Waters. 21 November 2023. 6 June 2019. Twitter.
  62. Web site: Leith Fadel . Four high-ranking jihadist commanders killed in Aleppo . 23 November 2016 . . 2017-03-02 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170216215801/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/four-high-ranking-jihadist-commanders-killed-aleppo/ . 2017-02-16 . live .
  63. News: Assad's Lionesses: the female last line in the battle for Syria. The Independent. 22 January 2013. 21 September 2023. Loveday Morris.
  64. Web site: Assad's female fighters: Progress or propaganda?. France 24. 18 November 2023. 2 April 2015. Sarah Leduc.
  65. Web site: Arab armies turn to women: An illusion or a new reality?. 17 November 2021. 26 November 2023. The New Arab.
  66. Web site: Paul Antonopoulos . New Syrian Arab Army Division established in preparation of new offensive . 22 January 2017 . . 2017-03-02 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170202012132/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/new-syrian-army-division-established-preparation-new-offensive/ . 2017-02-02 . live .
  67. Web site: Current Syrian Army Deployments. Gregory Waters. 12 May 2020. 17 October 2023. International Review.
  68. Web site: Hellcannon of the 1st Company of the Republican Guard's 30th Division, 47th Regiment, 63rd Battalion.. Twitter. Gregory Waters. 3 March 2024. 29 June 2022.
  69. https://us.dk/publikationer/2023/april/syria-the-special-forces-and-the-elite-units/ Syria - The Special Forces and the Elite Units
  70. Web site: The Fourth Division: Syria's parallel army. Abdullah Alghadawi. Middle East Institute. 29 February 2024. 24 September 2021.
  71. Web site: The "Al-Imam Hussein Brigade"- The Assimilation of a Shiite Militia into The Syrian Army's 4th Division, As Well as its Attacks on Israeli and US forces. Tal Beeri. Israel Alma. 27 July 2023. 17 November 2023.
  72. Web site: Harakat al-Nujaba': Interview. 5 September 2018 .
  73. Web site: Tiger Forces renamed and placed under command of Syrian Army. Al-Masdar News. 29 August 2019. 29 August 2019. 29 August 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190829154015/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/tiger-forces-renamed-and-placed-under-command-of-syrian-army/. dead.
  74. https://twitter.com/SAMSyria0/status/1792833139758284953?t=T8XDyxmDdt8WnYay65519g&s=19 استشهاد العقيد شرف عبدو السلات من مرتبات اللواء 26 مشاة - فرقة 25 مهام خاصة من الجيش العربي السوري أثناء أداء واجبه الوطني في البادية السورية في المعارك ضد تنظيم "د.ا.عش" الإرهابي شرقي محافظة حمص، الشهيد من محافظة إدلب.
  75. Web site: SAA's 59th Battalion (Commandos).
  76. Web site: Largest Syrian Brigade Nears Breaking Point. Arutz Sheva. 16 May 2013 . 2013-06-07. https://web.archive.org/web/20130607114227/http://www.israelnationalnews.com/News/News.aspx/168052. 2013-06-07. live.
  77. Web site: Syrian Army restores all lost points in Golan Heights. Leith. Fadel. 12 September 2016. 2016-09-18. https://web.archive.org/web/20160913152249/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-army-restores-lost-points-golan-heights/. 2016-09-13. live.
  78. Web site: Fighter from the 109th Battalion, 89th Brig of the #9th_Division KIA in #Idlib. 22 March 2024. 12 May 2019. Gregory Waters. Twitter.
  79. Web site: Syrian Army kicks off new operation in Daraa. May 8, 2020. October 1, 2023. January 17, 2021. https://web.archive.org/web/20210117194631/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-army-kicks-off-new-operation-in-daraa/. dead.
  80. Web site: SAA's 531st Battalion/44th Regiment/15th Division downed an HTS drone in Idlib. Twitter. Gregory Waters. 24 February 2024. 8 April 2023.
  81. https://twitter.com/GregoryPWaters/status/1090661053166379008?t=YhsHqcHLNhaLAOXfuoewEw&s=19 Armor depot of the 404th Armored Reg, 15th Special Forces Div.
  82. https://x.com/GregoryPWaters/status/1801752211791229185?t=2LpW_ktJVwJWle4DgQMr4w&s=19
    1. Russia|n officers training SAA students on ATGM at the 165th Artillery Brigade base south of Kisweh
  83. https://twitter.com/SAMSyria0/status/1768576644615176294?t=ftCVmYzAoBqYgtAJ_XDptw&s=19 شُيّع من المشفى العسكري في طرطوس منذ قليل الشهيد النقيب شرف جعفر عماد فاضل من مرتبات الفرقة الثانية (B73 - مشاة) في الجيش العربي
  84. Web site: Brigadier Gandhi Ibrahim has been appointed commander of its 48th Regiment. Twitter. Gregory Waters. 8 September 2023. 25 February 2024.
  85. https://twitter.com/GregoryPWaters/status/1656704335932211201?t=Aw6P7GaHLWZ-JfeKB5Wl4A&s=191 82nd Battalion of the 53rd SF Regiment (originally part of Special Forces Command now in 2nd Div)
  86. https://www.zamanalwsl.net/news/article/137433/ الحرس الجمهوري".. تشكيلات جديدة لتعزيز حماية الأسد منها "اقتحام نسائى" (صور وأسماء)
  87. Joseph Holliday, 'The Assad Regime: From Counterinsurgency to Civil War,' Institute for the Study of War, March 2013. Seemingly the best concise description and analysis of the Syrian Army and its involvement in the current Syrian Civil War.
  88. Web site: 122nd Artillery regiment belongs to the 10th Division. Gregory Waters. Twitter. 27 July 2019. 12 February 2024.
  89. Web site: Confirmed: Syrian Army's full order of battle for east Damascus offensive. 18 February 2018. Al-Masdar News. 20 February 2018. 13 May 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190513115127/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/confirmed-syrian-armys-full-order-battle-east-damascus-offensive/. dead.
  90. Web site: Tel Rifaat #Aleppo - one 3rd Div soldier & 5 local militia-men Darbasiyah #Hasakah - 3 soldiers killed from 20th Brigade/3rd Div. Gregory Waters. Twitter. 20 November 2022. 23 March 2024.
  91. Web site: 3rd Division’s artillery regiment is the 14th (the 155th is an affiliated missile brigade).. Gregory Waters. Twitter. 27 July 2019. 12 February 2024.
  92. Web site: Understanding Syria's Military Deployments in Idlib. 12 March 2019. 22 March 2023. Gregory Waters. International Review.
  93. Web site: Syrian Army reinforcements arrive to northern Hama to fend off jihadist offensive. al-Masdar News. Leith Fadel. 22 March 2017. 22 March 2017. 21 February 2019. https://web.archive.org/web/20190221122236/https://www.almasdarnews.com/article/syrian-army-reinforcements-arrive-northern-hama-fend-off-jihadist-offensive/. dead.
  94. News: Syria's Nusra seizes tanks, APCs from Assad's army . Middle East Eye . December 20, 2014 . December 20, 2014.
  95. Web site: Syrian commandos begin long campaign to Jisr Al-Shughour. 20 February 2016. 24 May 2016. https://web.archive.org/web/20160430201539/http://en.abna24.com/service/middle-east-west-asia/archive/2016/02/20/735911/story.html. 2016-04-30. live.
  96. Web site: Return to the northeast: Syrian Army deployments against Turkish forces. Middle East Institute. 20 November 2019. 20 November 2023. Gregory Waters.
  97. Web site: Syria's Border Guards: From Auxiliary to Frontlines. Gregory Waters. 25 September 2019 . 14 October 2023.
  98. Web site: Return to the northeast: Syrian Army deployments against Turkish forces. Gregory Waters. 18 October 2023. 20 November 2019. Middle East Institute.
  99. Web site: 1579th Battalion of the 5th Corps' 1st Brigade patrolling southeast #Hama this week..
  100. Web site: Understanding Syria's Military Deployments in Idlib. 12 March 2019. 22 March 2023. Gregory Waters. International Review.
  101. Book: Al-Jabassini, Abdullah. From Insurgents to Soldiers: The Fifth Assault Corps in Daraa, Southern Syria. Wartime and Post-Conflict in Syria. European University Institute. 978-92-9084-767-0. 2019.
  102. Web site: The Palestinian al-Quds Brigade has a new Iran-backed militia for fighting in Aleppo . Al-Dorar al-Shamia . 20 June 2017 . 28 August 2017 . 25 August 2017 . https://web.archive.org/web/20170825133805/http://www.aldorars.com/en/news/266 . dead .
  103. Web site: Pictures from inside the #Russian base in Ain Issa, Raqqa. 5th Corps 148th Brig. Twitter. Gregory Waters. 2 March 2024. 31 January 2021.
  104. Web site: Игорь Январёв, Никита Голобоков. Как Россия меняет Сирийскую армию. 2019-04-20. 2020-02-28. https://archive.today/20200228131818/https://news.ru/near-east/kak-rossiya-menyaet-sirijskuyu-armiyu/. 2020-02-28.
  105. Web site: Security . Global . Syrian Army equipment .
  106. Web site: Archived copy . 2018-11-30 . https://web.archive.org/web/20160202002911/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+sy0119%29 . 2016-02-02 . live .
  107. Web site: 2018-03-27 . Nine Years of War — Documenting Syrian Arab Army's Armored Vehicles Losses . 2022-12-08 . bellingcat . en-GB.
  108. https://www.aa.com.tr/en/analysis-news/analysis-missile-landscape-of-the-syrian-war/852320 ANALYSIS - Missile landscape of the Syrian war
  109. Web site: Uniforms and Rank Insignia. Library of Congress. April 1987. 2018-11-30. https://web.archive.org/web/20170202002925/http://lcweb2.loc.gov/cgi-bin/query/r?frd%2Fcstdy%3A%40field%28DOCID+sy0126%29. 2017-02-02. live.
  110. Web site: A snapshot of camouflage patterns in Syria – Armament Research Services. 15 August 2016. 2020-09-02. en-GB.
  111. Web site: From Russia with Love, Syria's AK-74Ms. 19 February 2015. bellingcat.
  112. Web site: Photo Report: The Syrian Arab Army (1). Oryx Blog. 12 October 2023. 6 November 2016. Stijn Mitzer and Joost Oliemans.
  113. Web site: Syria Ssh68. Brendon's Helmets. 2013-07-12. https://web.archive.org/web/20130330005043/http://brendonshelmets.weebly.com/syria-ssh68.html. 2013-03-30. live.
  114. Book: Gordon Rottman. Armies of the Gulf War. 20 March 2013. 27 May 1993. Osprey Publishing. 978-1-85532-277-6. 58. https://web.archive.org/web/20140422075655/http://books.google.com/books?id=nfT5KsdYk4cC&pg=PA58. 22 April 2014. live.
  115. News: fr. Syrie: les ISIS Hunters, ces soldats du régime de Damas formés par la Russie. 30 May 2017. France-Soir. 10 October 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20170910043934/http://www.francesoir.fr/politique-monde/syrie-les-isis-hunters-ces-soldats-du-regime-de-damas-formes-par-moscou-bachar-al-assad-forces-speciales-russie-syriens-etat-islamique-palmyre-daech-stephane-mantoux-5e-corps. 10 September 2017. live.
  116. Jones, Richard D. Jane's Infantry Weapons 2009/2010. Jane's Information Group; 35 edition (January 27, 2009). .
  117. News: La 104ème brigade de la Garde républicaine syrienne, troupe d'élite et étendard du régime de Damas. 20 March 2017. fr. France-Soir. 4 September 2018. https://web.archive.org/web/20171019004114/http://www.francesoir.fr/politique-monde/la-104eme-brigade-de-la-garde-republicaine-troupe-elite-regime-damas-combats-alep-ghouta-deir-ezzor-bachar-al-assad-issam-zahreddine-etat-islamique-arm%C3%A9e-syrienne-artillerie-druze-daech-forces-speciales. 19 October 2017. live.
  118. Web site: North Korean Type 73 GPMGs in Iraq, Syria & Yemen . . Ali . Richter . 16 March 2016.
  119. News: Syrian army general's weapons request. Washington Post. 8 September 2017. https://web.archive.org/web/20171011071831/http://apps.washingtonpost.com/g/page/national/syrian-army-generals-weapons-request/187/. 11 October 2017. live.
  120. Web site: From Russia with Love, Syria's AK-74Ms . 19 February 2015 . 2017-11-03 . https://web.archive.org/web/20190206004749/https://www.bellingcat.com/news/mena/2015/02/19/from-russia-with-love-syrias-ak-74ms/ . 2019-02-06 . live .
  121. O. Peri and H. Varulkar. 23 September 2019. Struggle Between Russia, Iran For Control Over Syria's Centers Of Power. Iran, Russia, Syria Inquiry & Analysis Series. 1475.
  122. News: 19 April 2019. Assad Appoints Pro-Russia General as Chief of Staff. The Syrian Observer. Zaman Al Wasl.
  123. Web site: Lund . Aron . 2022-05-23 . Can Assad's New Military Appointments Help Rebuild His Regime? . 2023-04-07 . . en.

This article is licensed under the GNU Free Documentation License. It uses material from the Wikipedia article "Syrian Army".

Except where otherwise indicated, Everything.Explained.Today is © Copyright 2009-2024, A B Cryer, All Rights Reserved. Cookie policy.