3-Deoxyglucosone Explained

3-Deoxyglucosone (3DG) is a sugar that is notable because it is a marker for diabetes. 3DG reacts with protein to form advanced glycation end-products (AGEs), which contribute to diseases such as the vascular complications of diabetes, atherosclerosis, hypertension, Alzheimer's disease, inflammation, and aging.

Biosynthesis

3DG is made naturally via the Maillard reaction. It forms after glucose reacts with primary amino groups of lysine or arginine found in proteins. Because of the increased concentration of the reactant glucose, more 3DG forms with excessive blood sugar levels, as in uncontrolled diabetes. Glucose reacts non-enzymatically with protein amino groups to initiate glycation. The formation of 3DG may account for the numerous complications of diabetes as well as aging.

3DG arises also via the degradation of fructose 3-phosphate (F3P).^[1] 3DG plays a central role in the development of diabetic complications via the action of fructosamine-3-kinase.

Biochemistry

As a dicarbonyl sugar, i.e. one with the grouping R-C(O)-C(O)-R, 3DG is highly reactive toward amine groups. Amines are common in amino acids as well as some nucleic acids. The products from the reaction of 3DG with protein amino groups are called advanced glycation end-products (AGEs). AGEs include imidazolones, pyrraline, N⁶-(carboxymethyl)lysine, and pentosidine. 3DG as well as AGEs play a role in the modification and cross-linking of long-lived proteins such as crystallin and collagen, contributing to diseases such as the vascular complications of diabetes, atherosclerosis, hypertension, Alzheimer's disease, inflammation, and aging.

3DG has a variety of potential biological effects, particularly when it is present at elevated concentrations in diabetic states:

• Diabetics with nephropathy were found to have elevated plasma levels of 3DG compared with other diabetics.^{[2] [3] [4]}
• Glycated diet, which elevates systemic 3DG levels, leads to diabetes-like tubular and glomerular kidney pathology.^[5]
• Increased 3DG is correlated to increased glomerular basement membrane width.^[6]
• 3DG inactivates aldehyde reductase.^[7] Aldehyde reductase is the cellular enzyme that protects the body from 3DG. Detoxification of 3DG to 3-deoxyfructose (3DF) is impaired in diabetic humans since their ratio of 3DG to 3DF in urine and plasma differs significantly from non-diabetic individuals.^[8]
• 3DG is a teratogenic factor in diabetic embryopathy, leading to embryo malformation.^[9] This appears to arise from 3DG accumulation, which leads to superoxide-mediated embryopathy. Women with pre-existing diabetes or severe diabetes that develops during pregnancy are between 3 and 4 times more likely than other women to give birth to infants with birth defects.
• 3DG induces apoptosis in macrophage-derived cell lines^[10] and is toxic to cultured cortical neurons^[11] and PC12 cells.^[12]

3DG and ROS

3DG induces reactive oxygen species (ROS) that contribute to the development of diabetic complications.^[13] Specifically, 3DG induces heparin-binding epidermal growth factor, a smooth muscle mitogen that is abundant in atherosclerotic plaques. This observation suggests that an increase in 3DG may trigger atherogenesis in diabetes.^{[14] [15]} 3DG also inactivates some enzymes that protect cells from ROS. For example, glutathione peroxidase, a central antioxidant enzyme that uses glutathione to remove ROS, and glutathione reductase, which regenerates glutathione, are both inactivated by 3DG.^{[16] [17]} Diabetic humans show increased oxidative stress.^[18] 3DG-induced ROS result in oxidative DNA damage.^[19] 3DG can be internalized by cells and internalized 3DG is responsible for the production of intracellular oxidative stress.^[20]

Detoxification

Although of uncertain medical significance, a variety of compounds react with 3DG, possibly deactivating it. One such agent is aminoguanidine (AG).^[21] AG reduces AGE associated retinal, neural, arterial, and renal pathologies in animal models.^{[22] [23] [24] [25]} The problem with AG is that it is toxic in the quantities needed for efficacy.

Additional reading

• Delpierre G, Rider MH, Collard F, Stroobant V, Vanstapel F, Santos H, Van Schaftingen E . Identification, cloning, and heterologous expression of a mammalian fructosamine-3-kinase . Diabetes . 49 . 10 . 1627–34 . October 2000 . 11016445 . 10.2337/diabetes.49.10.1627 .
• Book: Baynes JW, Thorpe SR, Murtiashaw MH . Nonenzymatic glucosylation of lysine residues in albumin . [8] Nonenzymatic glucosylation of lysine residues in albumin . 106 . 88–98 . 1984 . 6436646 . 10.1016/0076-6879(84)06010-9 . 978-0-12-182006-0 . Methods in Enzymology .
• Dyer DG, Blackledge JA, Thorpe SR, Baynes JW . Formation of pentosidine during nonenzymatic browning of proteins by glucose. Identification of glucose and other carbohydrates as possible precursors of pentosidine in vivo . The Journal of Biological Chemistry . 266 . 18 . 11654–60 . June 1991 . 10.1016/S0021-9258(18)99007-1 . 1904867 . free .
• . Novel inhibitors of advanced glycation endproducts . Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications . 262 . 3 . 651–6 . September 1999 . 10471380 . 10.1006/bbrc.1999.1275 .
• Yan SF, Ramasamy R, Naka Y, Schmidt AM . Glycation, inflammation, and RAGE: a scaffold for the macrovascular complications of diabetes and beyond . Circulation Research . 93 . 12 . 1159–69 . December 2003 . 14670831 . 10.1161/01.RES.0000103862.26506.3D . free .

Notes and References

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2. Kusunoki H, Miyata S, Ohara T, Liu BF, Uriuhara A, Kojima H, Suzuki K, Miyazaki H, Yamashita Y, Inaba K, Kasuga M . Relation between serum 3-deoxyglucosone and development of diabetic microangiopathy . Diabetes Care . 26 . 6 . 1889–94 . June 2003 . 12766129 . 10.2337/diacare.26.6.1889 . free . 20.500.14094/D2002787 . free .
3. Wells-Knecht KJ, Lyons TJ, McCance DR, Thorpe SR, Feather MS, Baynes JW . 3-Deoxyfructose concentrations are increased in human plasma and urine in diabetes . Diabetes . 43 . 9 . 1152–6 . September 1994 . 8070616 . 10.2337/diabetes.43.9.1152 .
4. 10.1016/S0378-4347(99)00113-9. 10491986. 3-Deoxyglucosone: Metabolism, analysis, biological activity, and clinical implication. Journal of Chromatography B: Biomedical Sciences and Applications. 731. 1. 23–36. 1999. Niwa. Toshimitsu.
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6. Beisswenger PJ, Drummond KS, Nelson RG, Howell SK, Szwergold BS, Mauer M . Susceptibility to diabetic nephropathy is related to dicarbonyl and oxidative stress . Diabetes . 54 . 11 . 3274–81 . November 2005 . 16249455 . 10.2337/diabetes.54.11.3274 . free .
7. Takahashi M, Lu YB, Myint T, Fujii J, Wada Y, Taniguchi N . In vivo glycation of aldehyde reductase, a major 3-deoxyglucosone reducing enzyme: identification of glycation sites . Biochemistry . 34 . 4 . 1433–8 . January 1995 . 7827091 . 10.1021/bi00004a038 .
8. Lal S, Kappler F, Walker M, Orchard TJ, Beisswenger PJ, Szwergold BS, Brown TR . Quantitation of 3-deoxyglucosone levels in human plasma . Archives of Biochemistry and Biophysics . 342 . 2 . 254–60 . June 1997 . 9186486 . 10.1006/abbi.1997.0117 .
9. Eriksson UJ, Wentzel P, Minhas HS, Thornalley PJ . Teratogenicity of 3-deoxyglucosone and diabetic embryopathy . Diabetes . 47 . 12 . 1960–6 . December 1998 . 9836531 . 10.2337/diabetes.47.12.1960 .
10. Okado A, Kawasaki Y, Hasuike Y, Takahashi M, Teshima T, Fujii J, Taniguchi N . Induction of apoptotic cell death by methylglyoxal and 3-deoxyglucosone in macrophage-derived cell lines . Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications . 225 . 1 . 219–24 . August 1996 . 8769121 . 10.1006/bbrc.1996.1157 .
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12. Suzuki K, Koh YH, Mizuno H, Hamaoka R, Taniguchi N . Overexpression of aldehyde reductase protects PC12 cells from the cytotoxicity of methylglyoxal or 3-deoxyglucosone . Journal of Biochemistry . 123 . 2 . 353–7 . February 1998 . 9538214 . 10.1093/oxfordjournals.jbchem.a021944 .
13. Araki A . [Oxidative stress and diabetes mellitus: a possible role of alpha-dicarbonyl compounds in free radical formation] . Nihon Ronen Igakkai Zasshi. Japanese Journal of Geriatrics . 34 . 9 . 716–20 . September 1997 . 9430981 .
14. Taniguchi N, Kaneto H, Asahi M, Takahashi M, Wenyi C, Higashiyama S, Fujii J, Suzuki K, Kayanoki Y . Involvement of glycation and oxidative stress in diabetic macroangiopathy . Diabetes . 45 . S81-3 . July 1996 . Suppl 3 . 8674900 . 10.2337/diab.45.3.s81 . 21268446 .
15. Che W, Asahi M, Takahashi M, Kaneto H, Okado A, Higashiyama S, Taniguchi N . Selective induction of heparin-binding epidermal growth factor-like growth factor by methylglyoxal and 3-deoxyglucosone in rat aortic smooth muscle cells. The involvement of reactive oxygen species formation and a possible implication for atherogenesis in diabetes . The Journal of Biological Chemistry . 272 . 29 . 18453–9 . July 1997 . 9218489 . 10.1074/jbc.272.29.18453 . free .
16. Vander Jagt DL, Hunsaker LA, Vander Jagt TJ, Gomez MS, Gonzales DM, Deck LM, Royer RE . Inactivation of glutathione reductase by 4-hydroxynonenal and other endogenous aldehydes . Biochemical Pharmacology . 53 . 8 . 1133–40 . April 1997 . 9175718 . 10.1016/S0006-2952(97)00090-7 .
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20. Sakiyama H, Takahashi M, Yamamoto T, Teshima T, Lee SH, Miyamoto Y, Misonou Y, Taniguchi N . The internalization and metabolism of 3-deoxyglucosone in human umbilical vein endothelial cells . Journal of Biochemistry . 139 . 2 . 245–53 . February 2006 . 16452312 . 10.1093/jb/mvj017 .
21. Brownlee M . Lilly Lecture 1993. Glycation and diabetic complications . Diabetes . 43 . 6 . 836–41 . June 1994 . 8194672 . 10.2337/diab.43.6.836 . 84490567 .
22. Ellis EN, Good BH . Prevention of glomerular basement membrane thickening by aminoguanidine in experimental diabetes mellitus . Metabolism . 40 . 10 . 1016–9 . October 1991 . 1943726 . 10.1016/0026-0495(91)90122-D .
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