21st United States Congress explained

Number:	21st
Imagename:	United States Capitol
Imagedate:	1827
Start:	March 4, 1829
End:	March 4, 1831
Vp:	John C. Calhoun (J)
Pro Tem:	Samuel Smith (J)
Speaker:	Andrew Stevenson (J)
Senators:	48
Reps:	213
Delegates:	3
S-Majority:	Jacksonian
H-Majority:	Jacksonian
Sessionnumber1:	Special (Senate)
Sessionstart1:	March 4, 1829
Sessionend1:	March 17, 1829
Sessionnumber2:	1st^[1]
Sessionstart2:	December 7, 1829
Sessionend2:	May 31, 1830
Sessionnumber3:	2nd
Sessionstart3:	December 6, 1830
Sessionend3:	March 3, 1831
Previous:	20th
Next:	22nd

The 21st United States Congress was a meeting of the legislative branch of the United States federal government, consisting of the United States Senate and the United States House of Representatives. It met in Washington, D.C., from March 4, 1829, to March 4, 1831, during the first two years of Andrew Jackson's presidency. The apportionment of seats in the House of Representatives was based on the 1820 United States census. Both chambers had a Jacksonian majority.

Major events

See main article: 1829 in the United States, 1830 in the United States and 1831 in the United States.

• March 4, 1829: Andrew Jackson became 7th President of the United States
• May 10–14, 1830: Confrontational meetings between the French Chargé d'affaires in Washington DC and a group of leaders consisting of Mark Alexander, William S. Archer, Robert H. Adams, Thomas Hinds, Dixon H. Lewis, Clement Comer Clay, Powhatan Ellis and John McKinley grew incredibly contentious and hostile. Arguments began when the aforementioned representatives and senators charged that France owed the United States reparations from damages incurred during the Quasi-War. At one point Thomas Hinds threatened the French Chargé d'affaires with a pistol. Eventually, only intervention by John Forsyth prevented a major diplomatic incident. Shortly after this the governor of Virginia John Floyd formally asked France's economic attaché to leave Virginia. This foreshadowed conflict with France over the same issue that would dominate American politics in 1835, at that point the main instigator on the American side would be President Andrew Jackson.^{[2] [3]}
• May 28  - US congress passes the Indian Removal Act.
• September 27  - Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek with Choctaw nation. (First removal treaty signed after the Removal Act.)

Major legislation

• May 28, 1830: Indian Removal Act, ch. 148,

Not enacted

• May 27, 1830: Maysville Road Bill vetoed

Treaties

• September 27, 1830: The Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek, the first removal treaty after the passage of the Indian Removal Act, is signed with the Choctaw.
• February 24, 1831: Treaty of Dancing Rabbit Creek proclaimed.

Party summary

The count below identifies party affiliations at the beginning of the first session of this congress. Changes resulting from subsequent replacements are shown below in the "Changes in membership" section.

House of Representatives

Leadership

Senate

• President: John C. Calhoun (J)
• President pro tempore: Samuel Smith (J)

House of Representatives

• Speaker: Andrew Stevenson (J)

Members

This list is arranged by chamber, then by state. Senators are listed by class, and representatives are listed by district.

Skip to House of Representatives, below

Senate

Senators were elected by the state legislatures every two years, with one-third beginning new six-year terms with each Congress. Preceding the names in the list below are Senate class numbers, which indicate the cycle of their election. In this Congress, Class 1 meant their term began in the last Congress, facing re-election in 1832; Class 2 meant their term began with this Congress, facing re-election in 1834; and Class 3 meant their term ended with this Congress, facing re-election in 1830.

2. William R. King (J)

3. John McKinley (J)

1. Samuel A. Foot (NR)

3. Calvin Willey (NR)

1. Louis McLane (J), until April 16, 1829

Arnold Naudain (NR), from January 7, 1830

2. John M. Clayton (NR)

2. George M. Troup (J)

3. John Macpherson Berrien (J), until March 9, 1829

John Forsyth (J), from November 9, 1829

2. John McLean (J), until October 14, 1830

David J. Baker (J), November 12, 1830 – December 11, 1830

John M. Robinson (J), from December 11, 1830

3. Elias Kane (J)

1. James Noble (NR), until February 26, 1831, vacant for remainder of term

3. William Hendricks (NR)

2. George M. Bibb (J)

3. John Rowan (J)

2. Edward Livingston (J)

3. Josiah S. Johnston (NR)

1. John Holmes (NR)

2. Peleg Sprague (NR)

1. Samuel Smith (J)

3. Ezekiel F. Chambers (NR)

1. Daniel Webster (NR)

2. Nathaniel Silsbee (NR)

1. Powhatan Ellis (J)

2. Thomas B. Reed (J), until November 26, 1829

Robert H. Adams (J), January 6, 1830 – July 2, 1830

George Poindexter (J), from October 15, 1830

1. Thomas H. Benton (J)

3. David Barton (NR)

2. Samuel Bell (NR)

3. Levi Woodbury (J)

1. Mahlon Dickerson (J)

2. Theodore Frelinghuysen (NR)

1. Charles E. Dudley (J)

3. Nathan Sanford (NR)

2. John Branch (J), until March 9, 1829

Bedford Brown (J), from December 9, 1829

3. James Iredell Jr. (J)

1. Benjamin Ruggles (NR)

3. Jacob Burnet (NR)

1. Isaac D. Barnard (J)

3. William Marks (NR)

1. Asher Robbins (NR)

2. Nehemiah R. Knight (NR)

2. Robert Y. Hayne (J)

3. William Smith (J)

1. John H. Eaton (J), until March 9, 1829

Felix Grundy (J), from October 19, 1829

2. Hugh Lawson White (J)

1. Horatio Seymour (NR)

3. Dudley Chase (NR)

1. John Tyler (J)

2. Littleton W. Tazewell (J)

House of Representatives

Members are listed by their districts.

. Clement C. Clay (J)

. R. E. B. Baylor (J)

. Dixon H. Lewis (J)

All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.

. Noyes Barber (NR)

. William W. Ellsworth (NR)

. Jabez W. Huntington (NR)

. Ralph I. Ingersoll (NR)

. William L. Storrs (NR)

. Ebenezer Young (NR)

. Kensey Johns Jr. (NR)

All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.

. Thomas F. Foster (J)

. Charles E. Haynes (J)

. Henry G. Lamar (J), from December 7, 1829

. Wilson Lumpkin (J)

. Wiley Thompson (J)

. James M. Wayne (J)

. Richard Henry Wilde (J)

. Joseph Duncan (J)

. Ratliff Boon (J)

. Jonathan Jennings (NR)

. John Test (NR)

. Henry Daniel (J)

. Nicholas D. Coleman (J)

. James Clark (NR)

. Robert P. Letcher (NR)

. Richard M. Johnson (J)

. Joseph Lecompte (J)

. John Kincaid (J)

. Nathan Gaither (J)

. Charles A. Wickliffe (J)

. Joel Yancey (J)

. Thomas Chilton (J)

. Chittenden Lyon (J)

. Edward D. White (NR)

. Henry H. Gurley (NR)

. Walter H. Overton (J)

. Rufus McIntire (J)

. John Anderson (J)

. Joseph F. Wingate (NR)

. George Evans (NR), from July 20, 1829

. James W. Ripley (J), until March 12, 1830

Cornelius Holland (J), from December 6, 1830

. Leonard Jarvis (J)

. Samuel Butman (NR)

The 5th district was a plural district with two representatives.

. Clement Dorsey (NR)

. Benedict J. Semmes (NR)

. George C. Washington (NR)

. Michael C. Sprigg (J)

. Elias Brown (J)

. Benjamin C. Howard (J)

. George E. Mitchell (J), from December 7, 1829

. Richard Spencer (J)

. Ephraim K. Wilson (J)

. Benjamin Gorham (NR)

. Benjamin W. Crowninshield (NR)

. John Varnum (NR)

. Edward Everett (NR)

. John Davis (NR)

. Joseph G. Kendall (NR)

. George J. Grennell Jr. (NR)

. Isaac C. Bates (NR)

. Henry W. Dwight (NR)

. John Bailey (NR)

. Joseph Richardson (NR)

. James L. Hodges (NR)

. John Reed Jr. (NR)

. Thomas Hinds (J)

. Spencer D. Pettis (J)

All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.

. John Brodhead (J)

. Thomas Chandler (J)

. Joseph Hammons (J)

. Jonathan Harvey (J)

. Henry Hubbard (J)

. John W. Weeks (J)

All representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.

. Lewis Condict (NR)

. Richard M. Cooper (NR)

. Thomas H. Hughes (NR)

. Isaac Pierson (NR)

. James F. Randolph (NR)

. Samuel Swan (NR)

There were three plural districts, the 20th & 26th had two representatives each, the 3rd had three representatives.

. James Lent (J)

. Jacob Crocheron (J)

. Churchill C. Cambreleng (J)

. Gulian C. Verplanck (J)

. Campbell P. White (J)

. Henry B. Cowles (NR)

. Abraham Bockee (J)

. Hector Craig (J), until July 12, 1830

Samuel W. Eager (NR), from November 2, 1830

. Charles G. DeWitt (J)

. James Strong (NR)

. John D. Dickinson (NR)

. Ambrose Spencer (NR)

. Perkins King (J)

. Peter I. Borst (J)

. William G. Angel (J)

. Henry R. Storrs (NR)

. Michael Hoffman (J)

. Benedict Arnold (NR)

. John W. Taylor (NR)

. Henry C. Martindale (NR)

. Isaac Finch (NR)

. Joseph Hawkins (NR)

. George Fisher (NR), until February 5, 1830

Jonah Sanford (J), from November 3, 1830

. Robert Monell (J), until February 21, 1831, vacant thereafter

. Thomas Beekman (NR)

. Jonas Earll Jr. (J)

. Gershom Powers (J)

. Thomas Maxwell (J)

. Jehiel H. Halsey (J)

. Robert S. Rose (Anti-M)

. Timothy Childs (Anti-M)

. John Magee (J)

. Phineas L. Tracy (Anti-M)

. Ebenezer F. Norton (J)

. William B. Shepard (NR)

. Willis Alston (J)

. Thomas H. Hall (J)

. Jesse Speight (J)

. Gabriel Holmes (J), until September 26, 1829

Edward B. Dudley (J), from November 10, 1829

. Robert Potter (J)

. Edmund Deberry (NR)

. Daniel L. Barringer (J)

. Augustine H. Shepperd (J)

. Abraham Rencher (J)

. Henry W. Connor (J)

. Samuel P. Carson (J)

. Lewis Williams (NR)

. James Findlay (J)

. James Shields (J)

. Joseph H. Crane (NR)

. Joseph Vance (NR)

. William Russell (J)

. William Creighton Jr. (NR)

. Samuel F. Vinton (NR)

. William Stanbery (J)

. William W. Irvin (J)

. William Kennon Sr. (J)

. John M. Goodenow (J), until April 9, 1830

Humphrey H. Leavitt (J), from December 6, 1830

. John Thomson (J)

. Elisha Whittlesey (NR)

. Mordecai Bartley (NR)

There were six plural districts, the 7th, 8th, 11th & 16th had two representatives each, the 4th & 9th had three representatives each.

. Joel B. Sutherland (J)

. Joseph Hemphill (J)

. Daniel H. Miller (J)

. James Buchanan (J)

. Joshua Evans Jr. (J)

. George G. Leiper (J)

. John B. Sterigere (J)

. Innis Green (J)

. Joseph Fry Jr. (J)

. Henry A. P. Muhlenberg (J)

. Samuel D. Ingham (J), until March 1829

Peter Ihrie Jr. (J), from October 13, 1829

. George Wolf (J), until March 1829

Samuel A. Smith (J), from October 13, 1829

. James Ford (J)

. Alem Marr (J)

. Philander Stephens (J)

. Adam King (J)

. Thomas H. Crawford (J)

. William Ramsey (J)

. John Scott (J)

. Chauncey Forward (J)

. Thomas Irwin (J)

. William McCreery (J)

. Harmar Denny (Anti-M), from December 15, 1829, after William Wilkins resigned before qualifying

. John Gilmore (J)

. Richard Coulter (J)

. Thomas H. Sill (NR)

Both representatives were elected statewide on a general ticket.

. Tristam Burges (NR)

. Dutee J. Pearce (NR)

. William Drayton (J)

. Robert W. Barnwell (J)

. John Campbell (J)

. William D. Martin (J)

. George McDuffie (J)

. Warren R. Davis (J)

. William T. Nuckolls (J)

. James Blair (J)

. Starling Tucker (J)

. John Blair (J)

. Pryor Lea (J)

. James I. Standifer (J)

. Jacob C. Isacks (J)

. Robert Desha (J)

. James K. Polk (J)

. John Bell (J)

. Cave Johnson (J)

. David Crockett (NR)

. Jonathan Hunt (NR)

. Rollin C. Mallary (NR)

. Horace Everett (NR)

. Benjamin Swift (NR)

. William Cahoon (Anti-M)

. Thomas Newton Jr. (NR), until March 9, 1830

George Loyall (J), from March 9, 1830

. James Trezvant (J)

. William S. Archer (J)

. Mark Alexander (J)

. Thomas T. Bouldin (J)

. Thomas Davenport (J)

. Nathaniel H. Claiborne (J)

. Richard Coke Jr. (J)

. Andrew Stevenson (J)

. William C. Rives (J), until April 17, 1829

William F. Gordon (J), from January 25, 1830

. Philip P. Barbour (J), until October 15, 1830

John M. Patton (J), from November 25, 1830

. John Roane (J)

. John Taliaferro (NR)

. Charles F. Mercer (NR)

. John S. Barbour (J)

. William Armstrong (NR)

. Robert Allen (J)

. Philip Doddridge (NR)

. William McCoy (J)

. Robert Craig (J)

. Lewis Maxwell (NR)

. Alexander Smyth (J), until April 17, 1830

Joseph Draper (J), from December 6, 1830

Non-voting members

. Ambrose H. Sevier

. Joseph M. White

. John Biddle, until February 21, 1831, vacant thereafter

Changes in membership

The count below reflects changes from the beginning of the first session of this Congress.

Senate

• Replacements: 4
  • Jacksonians (J): no net change
  • National Republicans (NR): no net change
• Deaths: 4
• Resignations: 4
• Interim appointments: 1
• Total seats with changes: 7

See also: List of special elections to the United States Senate.

|-| Georgia
(3)| | John M. Berrien (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 9, 1829, to become U.S. Attorney General.
Successor elected November 9, 1829.| | John Forsyth (J)| Installed November 9, 1829

|-| North Carolina
(2)| | John Branch (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 9, 1829, after being appointed U.S. Secretary of the Navy.
Successor elected December 9, 1829.| | Bedford Brown (J)| Installed December 9, 1829

|-| Tennessee
(1)| | John Eaton (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 9, 1829, after being appointed U.S. Secretary of War.
Successor elected October 19, 1829.| | Felix Grundy (J)| Installed October 19, 1829

|-| Delaware
(1)| | Louis McLane (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned April 29, 1829, to become U.S. Envoy Extraordinary and Minister Plenipotentiary to the United Kingdom.
Successor elected January 7, 1830.| | Arnold Naudain (NR)| Installed January 7, 1830

|-| Mississippi
(2)| | Thomas B. Reed (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Died November 26, 1829.
Successor elected January 6, 1830.| | Robert H. Adams (J)| Installed January 6, 1830

|-| Mississippi
(2)| | Robert H. Adams (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Died July 2, 1830.
Successor appointed October 15, 1830, to continue the term, and subsequently elected.| | George Poindexter (J)| Installed October 15, 1830

|-| Illinois
(2)| | John McLean (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Died October 14, 1830.
Successor appointed November 12, 1830, to continue the term.| | David J. Baker (J)| Installed November 12, 1830

|-| Illinois
(2)| | David J. Baker (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Appointee retired with elected successor qualified.
Successor elected December 11, 1830.| | John M. Robinson (J)| Installed December 11, 1830

|-| Indiana
(1)| | James Noble (NR)| style="font-size:80%" | Died February 26, 1831.
Seat filled next Congress.| Vacant| Not filled this Congress

House of Representatives

• Replacements: 5
  • Jacksonians (J): 1 seat net loss
  • National Republicans (NR): 1 seat net gain
• Deaths: 2
• Resignations: 10
• Contested election: 2

Total seats with changes: 15

See main article: List of special elections to the United States House of Representatives. |-| | Vacant| style="font-size:80%" | Maryland elected its members October 5, 1829, after the term began but before Congress convened. Rep-elect sworn in December after convening.| | George Edward Mitchell (J)| Seated December 7, 1829|-| | Vacant| style="font-size:80%" | George Gilmer (Jacksonian) was redistricted from the 1st district and re-elected but failed to accept the position within the legal time frame. Governor ordered a new election.| | Henry G. Lamar (J)| Seated December 7, 1829|-| | Vacant| style="font-size:80%" | Peleg Sprague resigned in previous Congress| | George Evans (NR)| Seated July 20, 1829|-| | Vacant| style="font-size:80%" | William Wilkins resigned before qualifying| | Harmar Denny (AM)| Seated December 15, 1829|-| | | George Wolf (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned in 1829 before the convening of Congress| | Samuel A. Smith (J)| Seated October 13, 1829|-| | | William C. Rives (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned some time in 1829| | William F. Gordon (J)| Seated January 25, 1830|-| | | Samuel D. Ingham (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned in March 1829 after being appointed Secretary of the Treasury| | Peter Ihrie Jr. (J)| Seated October 13, 1829|-| | | Gabriel Holmes (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Died September 26, 1829| | Edward B. Dudley (J)| Seated November 10, 1829|-| | | George Fisher (NR)| style="font-size:80%" | Lost contested election February 5, 1830, to Silas Wright who in turn failed to qualify| | Jonah Sanford (J)| Seated November 3, 1830|-| | | Thomas Newton Jr. (NR)| style="font-size:80%" | Lost contested election March 9, 1830| | George Loyall (J)| Seated March 9, 1830|-| | | James W. Ripley (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned March 12, 1830| | Cornelius Holland (J)| Seated December 6, 1830|-| | | John M. Goodenow (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned April 9, 1830, after being appointed judge of the Supreme Court of Ohio| | Humphrey H. Leavitt (J)| Seated December 6, 1830|-| | | Alexander Smyth (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Died April 17, 1830| | Joseph Draper (J)| Seated December 6, 1830|-| | | Hector Craig (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned July 12, 1830| | Samuel W. Eager (NR)| Seated November 2, 1830|-| | | Philip P. Barbour (J)| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned October 15, 1830, after being appointed judge of US Circuit Court of the Eastern District of Virginia| | John M. Patton (J)| Seated November 25, 1830|-| | | Robert Monell (J)| style="font-size:80%" |Resigned February 21, 1831| Vacant| Not filled this term|-| | John Biddle| style="font-size:80%" | Resigned February 21, 1831| Vacant| Not filled this term|}

Committees

Lists of committees and their party leaders.

Senate

• Accounts of James Monroe (Select)
• Agriculture (Chairman: William Marks)
• Amending the Constitution on the Election of the President and Vice President (Select)
• Audit and Control the Contingent Expenses of the Senate (Chairman: Elias Kane then James Iredell Jr.)
• Claims (Chairman: Benjamin Ruggles)
• Commerce (Chairman: Levi Woodbury)
• Distributing Public Revenue Among the States (Select)
• District of Columbia (Chairman: Ezekiel F. Chambers)
• Dueling (Select)
• Engrossed Bills (Chairman: William Marks)
• Finance (Chairman: Samuel Smith)
• Foreign Relations (Chairman: Littleton Tazewell)
• French Spoilations (Select)
• Impeachment of James H. Peck (Select)
• Indian Affairs (Chairman: Hugh Lawson White)
• Judiciary (Chairman: John Rowan)
• Manufactures (Chairman: Mahlon Dickerson)
• Memorial of the Manufacturers Iron (Select)
• Mileage of Members of Congress (Select)
• Military Affairs (Chairman: Thomas Hart Benton)
• Militia (Chairman: Isaac D. Barnard)
• Naval Affairs (Chairman: Robert Y. Hayne)
• Nomination of Amos Kendall (Select)
• Pensions (Chairman: John Holmes)
• Post Office Department (Select)
• Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: George M. Bibb)
• Private Land Claims (Chairman: Jacob Burnet)
• Public Lands (Chairman: David Barton)
• Roads and Canals (Select) (Chairman: William Hendricks)
• Tariff Regulation (Select)
• Whole

House of Representatives

• Accounts (Chairman: Jehiel H. Halsey)
• Agriculture (Chairman: Ambrose Spencer)
• American Colonization Society (Select)
• Claims (Chairman: Elisha Whittlesey)
• Commerce (Chairman: Churchill C. Cambreleng)
• District of Columbia (Chairman: Gershom Powers)
• Elections (Chairman: Willis Alston)
• Establishing an Assay Office in the Gold Region (Select)
• Expenditures in the Navy Department (Chairman: Augustine H. Shepperd)
• Expenditures in the Post Office Department (Chairman: Joel Yancey)
• Expenditures in the State Department (Chairman: Jonas Earll)
• Expenditures in the Treasury Department (Chairman: George G. Leiper)
• Expenditures in the War Department (Chairman: Lewis Maxwell)
• Expenditures on Public Buildings (Chairman: Michael C. Sprigg)
• Foreign Affairs (Chairman: William S. Archer)
• Indian Affairs (Chairman: John Bell)
• Judiciary (Chairman: James Buchanan)
• Manufactures (Chairman: Rollin C. Mallary)
• Military Affairs (Chairman: William Drayton)
• Military Pensions (Chairman: Isaac C. Bates)
• Naval Affairs (Chairman: Michael Hoffman)
• Post Office and Post Roads (Chairman: Richard M. Johnson)
• Private Land Claims (Chairman: John B. Sterigere)
• Public Expenditures (Chairman: Thomas H. Hall)
• Public Lands (Chairman: Jacob C. Isacks then Charles A. Wickliffe)
• Revisal and Unfinished Business (Chairman: Dutee J. Pearce)
• Revolutionary Claims (Chairman: Tristam Burges)
• Revolutionary Pensions (Chairman: N/A)
• Rules (Select)
• Standards of Official Conduct
• Territories (Chairman: James Clark)
• Ways and Means (Chairman: George McDuffie)
• Whole

Joint committees

• Enrolled Bills
• The Library

Employees

Legislative branch agency directors

• Architect of the Capitol

Charles Bulfinch, until June 25, 1829 (office abolished)

• Librarian of Congress

John Silva Meehan

Senate

• Chaplain

William Ryland (Methodist), until December 14, 1829

• • Henry V. Johns (Episcopalian), elected December 14, 1829
• Secretary

Walter Lowrie

• Sergeant at Arms

Mountjoy Bayly

House of Representatives

• Chaplain: Reuben Post (Presbyterian), until December 13, 1830
  • Ralph R. Gurley (Presbyterian), elected December 13, 1830
• Clerk: Matthew St. Clair Clarke
• Doorkeeper: Benjamin Birch
• Reading Clerks:
• Sergeant at Arms: John O. Dunn

See also

• 1828 United States elections (elections leading to this Congress)
  • 1828 United States presidential election
  • 1828–29 United States Senate elections
  • 1828–29 United States House of Representatives elections
• 1830 United States elections (elections during this Congress, leading to the next Congress)
  • 1830–31 United States Senate elections
  • 1830–31 United States House of Representatives elections

References

• Book: Martis, Kenneth C.. The Historical Atlas of Political Parties in the United States Congress. 1989. Macmillan Publishing Company. New York.
• Book: Martis, Kenneth C.. The Historical Atlas of United States Congressional Districts. 1982. Macmillan Publishing Company. New York.

External links

From American Memory at the Library of Congress:

• Statutes at Large, 1789-1875
• Senate Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
• House Journal, First Forty-three Sessions of Congress
• Book: Congressional Directory for the 21st Congress, 1st Session . 1830.

Other U.S. government websites:

• House Document No. 108-222 from the Biographical Directory of the United States Congress (1774 - 2005)
• House History from the U.S. House of Representatives
• Statistics and Lists from the U.S. Senate

Notes and References

1. http://clerk.house.gov/art_history/house_history/bioguide-front/21.pdf 21st Congress
2. Andrew Jackson and the Course of American Democracy, 1833-1845 by Robert Vincent Remini · 1984
3. obert C. Thomas, “Andrew Jackson versus France,” Tennessee Historical Quarterly, 35 (1976), 51–64.