2010 Chile earthquake explained

2010 Chile earthquake
Image Alt:Collapsed building in Concepción.
Timestamp:2010-02-27 06:34:12
Isc-Event:14340585
Anss-Url:official20100227063411530_30
Local-Time:03:34:12 CST
Magnitude:8.8
Pga:0.65 g[1]
Depth:350NaN0
30.10NaN0
Location:
Type:Megathrust
Countries Affected:Chile
Duration:3 minutes
Casualties:525 dead, 25 missing[2]

The 2010 Chile earthquake and tsunami (Spanish; Castilian: Terremoto del 27F)[3] occurred off the coast of central Chile on Saturday, 27 February at 03:34:12 local time (06:34:12 UTC), having a magnitude of 8.8 on the moment magnitude scale, with intense shaking lasting for about three minutes.[4] [5] [6] It was felt strongly in six Chilean regions (from Valparaíso in the north to Araucanía in the south) that together make up about 80 percent of the country's population. According to the United States Geological Survey (USGS) the cities experiencing the strongest shaking—VIII (Severe) on the Mercalli intensity scale (MM)—were Concepción, Arauco, and Coronel. According to Chile's Seismological Service, Concepción experienced the strongest shaking at MM IX (Violent).[7] The earthquake was felt in the capital Santiago at MM VII (Very strong)[8] or MM VIII. Tremors were felt in many Argentine cities, including Buenos Aires, Córdoba, Mendoza, and La Rioja.[9] [10] Tremors were felt as far north as the city of Ica in southern Peru (approx. 2400km (1,500miles) away). It is the largest earthquake to hit Chile since the 1960 Valdivia earthquake.

The earthquake triggered a tsunami which devastated several coastal towns in south-central Chile and damaged the port at Talcahuano. Tsunami warnings were issued in 53 countries,[11] and the wave caused minor damage in the San Diego area of California[12] and in the Tōhoku region of Japan, where damage to the fisheries business was estimated at ¥6.26 billion (US$66.7 million).[13] The earthquake also generated a blackout that affected 93 percent of the Chilean population and which went on for several days in some locations.[14] President Michelle Bachelet declared a "state of catastrophe" and sent military troops to take control of the most affected areas. According to official sources, 525 people lost their lives, 25 people went missing[2] and about 9% of the population in the affected regions lost their homes.[15]

On 10 March, Swiss Reinsurance Co. estimated that the Chilean quake would cost insurance companies between 4 and 7 billion dollars. The rival German-based Munich Re AG made the same estimate.[16] The losses to the economy of Chile caused by the earthquake are estimated at US$15–30 billion.[17]

Location/epicenter

According to the USGS, the epicenter of the earthquake was about 3km (02miles) off the coast of Pelluhue, a town in the Maule Region. This is about 6km (04miles) west of the village of Chovellén, 15km (09miles) southwest of the town of Pelluhue and at a point approximately 100km (100miles) away from the following four provincial capitals: Talca (to the north-east), Linares (to the east), Chillán (to the south-east) and Concepción (to the south).[5] Chile's Seismological Service located the quake's epicenter at about 34km (21miles) off the coast of Ñuble Region in the Biobío Region. This is 60km (40miles) north of Concepción and 170km (110miles) south-west of Talca.

Seismology and geology

See main article: Nazca Plate and geology of Chile. The earthquake took place along the boundary between the Nazca and South American tectonic plates at a location where they converge at a rate of a year. This earthquake was characterized by a thrust-faulting focal mechanism, caused by the subduction of the Nazca plate beneath the South American Tectonic Plates.[5] The end-regions of the rupture zone coincided with the Andean oroclines of Maipo (33° S) and Arauco (37° S). This has been interpreted as suggesting a link between upper plate (South American plate) structure and rupture length.

Chile has been at a convergent plate boundary that generates megathrust earthquakes since the Paleozoic era (500 million years ago). In historical times the Chilean coast has suffered many megathrust earthquakes along this plate boundary, including the strongest earthquake ever measured, the 1960 Valdivia earthquake. More recently, the boundary ruptured during the 2007 Tocopilla earthquake in northern Chile.

The segment of the fault zone which ruptured in this earthquake was estimated to be over 700km (400miles) long with a displacement of almost 10 meters, or 120 years of accumulated plate movement.[18] It lay immediately north of the 1000km (1,000miles) segment which ruptured in the great earthquake of 1960.[19] Preliminary measurements show that the entire South American Plate moved abruptly westward during the quake.[20] A research collaborative of Ohio State and other institutions have found, using GPS, that the earthquake shifted Santiago 28cm (11inches) to the west-southwest and moved Concepción at least 3m (10feet) to the west. The earthquake also shifted other parts of South America from the Falkland Islands to Fortaleza, Brazil. For example, it moved Argentina's capital of Buenos Aires about 2.5cm (01inches) to the west.[21] Several cities south of Cobquecura were also raised by up to 3 meters.[22] The maximum recorded peak ground acceleration was at Concepcion, with a value of 0.65 g (6.38 m/s2).[23]

The locality of Tirúa south of Concepción recorded a 180cm (70inches) uplift relative to sea level as result of the earthquake. This is the highest known uplift of the coast resulting from the earthquake.[24] This uplift made a large islet emerge at the mouth of Lebu River.[24]

Compared with past earthquakes

See also: List of earthquakes in 2010.

This was the strongest earthquake affecting Chile since the magnitude 9.5 1960 Valdivia earthquake (the most energetic earthquake ever measured), and it was the strongest earthquake worldwide since the 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake and until the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake.[25] It is tied with the 1906 Ecuador–Colombia and 1833 Sumatra earthquakes as the sixth strongest earthquake ever measured, approximately 500 times more powerful than the 7.0 Mw earthquake in Haiti one month prior in January 2010.[26]

Aftershocks

An aftershock of 6.2 was recorded 20 minutes after the initial quake.[27] Two more aftershocks of magnitudes 5.4 and 5.6 followed within an hour of the initial quake.[27] The USGS said that "a large vigorous aftershock sequence can be expected from this earthquake".[5] By 6 March UTC, more than 130 aftershocks had been registered, including thirteen above magnitude 6.0.[28]

Shortly after the mainshock seismologists installed a dense network of seismometers along the whole rupture area. This network captured 20,000 aftershocks in the 6 months after the mainshock and shows a detailed picture of the structure of the Chilean margin.[29] Seismicity is focused in the depth range of NaNkm (-2,147,483,648miles) and in a deeper band of between NaNkm (-2,147,483,648miles) depth. Around 10,000 aftershocks occurred in the region of two large aftershocks in the Pichilemu region.

A 6.9-magnitude offshore earthquake struck approximately 300 kilometers southwest of, and less than 90 minutes after, the initial shock; however, it is not clear if that quake was related to the main shock.[30] A separate earthquake of magnitude 6.3 occurred in Salta, Argentina, at 15:45 UTC on 27 February, at a depth of 38.2km (23.7miles);[31] two people were injured and one died in Salta.[32] This earthquake was followed on 1 March at 06:32 UTC by a magnitude 4.9 aftershock.[33] Four other earthquakes above M5.0, some possible aftershocks, also occurred near the border in Argentina following the Chile earthquake; a magnitude 5.0 earthquake occurred in Mendoza on 28 February, a M5.3 earthquake in Neuquen and a M5.2 in San Juan on 2 March, and a M5.1 quake in Mendoza on 4 March.[34] [35] [36] [37]

Another strong earthquake occurred on 4 March, at 22:39 UTC in Antofagasta in northern Chile, with a magnitude of 6.3.[38]

Minor quakes generated by the main one could be felt as far away as São Paulo, Brazil,[39] located about 3000km (2,000miles) away from Concepción. Since the major earthquake, and as of 15 March, at least four to forty >M5.0 earthquakes have been recorded daily in the vicinity of the main earthquake,[40] including four above magnitude 6.0 between 3 March and 6 March.[27]

On 5 March, two aftershocks above M6.0 were reported. The first was a 6.3-magnitude off the coast of the Biobío Region. The second was near the epicenter of the original quake at 08:47 local time with a magnitude of 6.6.[41]

On 11 March, the March 2010 Chile earthquake (magnitude 6.9, treated by some as an aftershock of the February 2010 earthquake) was reported, followed quickly by further aftershocks measuring 6.7 and 6.0. The epicenter of the 6.9 quake was in Pichilemu, O'Higgins Region.[42] [43]

On 15 March, two aftershocks of the February 2010 earthquake were reported, one at magnitude 6.2 at 08:08:28 local time offshore Maule,[44] and another at magnitude 6.7 with the epicenter located offshore the Biobío Region, near Cobquecura, at 23:21:58 local time.[45] This tremor was followed by two minor aftershocks, one occurring 45 minutes later, measuring M5.5. No tsunami was reported and there were no tsunami warnings issued.

On 17 March, at 14:38:37 local time, an earthquake of magnitude 5.2 was recorded in Aisén, in Southern Chile.[46] Another magnitude 5.2 earthquake was recorded in Los Lagos the next day. On 26 March, at 10:52:06 local time, a magnitude 6.2 earthquake hit the Atacama region, in Northern Chile.[47]

The Biobio Region of Chile had strong aftershocks of this earthquake. The first one was a magnitude 6.7 MW earthquake that struck off the coast of Biobío, Chile, at 23:21 on 15 March 2010 at the epicenter, at a depth of 18km (11miles). The second earthquake struck on land in the region at 22:58 (UTC) on 2 April 2010 at 5.9 MW and at a depth of 39km (24miles). The third struck on 10:03 (UTC) on 23 April 2010 at 6.2 MW.[48] The Pacific Tsunami Warning Center said that historical data indicates that this quake would not generate a tsunami but still advised of the possibility.[49] On 3 May, at 19:09 a 6.4 MW earthquake magnitude struck off Biobío, Chile, at the epicenter, at a depth of 20km (10miles). The epicenter was 55km (34miles) south of Lebu.[50] On 14 July 2010, another 6.5 magnitude earthquake occurred in the area.

2011 aftershocks

On 2 January at 17:20:18 local time, a 7.1 magnitude aftershock occurred 70km (40miles) northwest of Temuco, Chile.[51] On Lautaro, Cañete, Nueva Imperial, Traiguén and Carahue the quake was felt at intensity VI (Strong) of the Mercalli intensity scale. In Temuco it was perceived at intensity V (Moderate). In Talcahuano, Concepción, Chillán, Osorno and Valdivia it shook at intensity IV (Light).[52] According to the USGS the earthquake's epicenter was located on the ground, east of the coastal town of Tirúa in the Araucanía Region. However, according to the University of Chile's Seismological Service, the seismic event was located 134km (83miles) off the coast of Tirúa, measuring a magnitude 6.9 ML. The University of Chile also reported that the localities who received the strongest shaking (VI) were Curanilahue, Lebu and Tirúa. In Concepción, Talcahuano and Temuco it was felt at intensity V, and in Chillán and Valdivia at intensity IV.[53]

A magnitude 6.2 Mw aftershock struck the coast of Biobío, Chile at a shallow depth of 15.1km (09.4miles) on 1 June 2011 at 08:55 local time (12:55 UTC).[54] It was centered just offshore Arauco Province near a moderately populated area, with most structures in its vicinity reported to be resistant to earthquake shaking. Strong shaking registering at VI on the Mercalli intensity scale was felt in Lebu, just 7km (04miles) south of the epicenter, lasting for approximately one minute.[55] [56] Some residents in coastal areas panicked and evacuated their homes.[57] The earthquake was followed by a moderate magnitude 5.1 Mw tremor that occurred about 52 minutes later to the northeast of the main shock epicenter at an estimated depth of 26.9km (16.7miles).[58] Initial estimates from the USGS placed its intensity at a magnitude of 6.4 Mw.[59]

Geophysical impact

Seismologists estimate that the earthquake was so powerful that it may have shortened the length of the day by 1.26 microseconds and moved the Earth's figure axis by 2.7 milliarcseconds (about 8 cm).[60] [61] Precise GPS measurement indicated the telluric movement moved the entire city of Concepción 3.04m (09.97feet) to the west. The capital Santiago experienced a displacement of almost 24cm (09inches) west, and even Buenos Aires, about 1350km (840miles) from Concepción,[62] shifted 4cm (02inches).[63] [64] It is estimated that Chile's territory could have expanded as a result.[65]

The earthquake also caused seiches to occur in Lake Pontchartrain to the north of New Orleans, United States, located nearly 7500km (4,700miles) from the epicenter of the quake.[66] In Antarctica a series of icequakes were triggered by the 2010 earthquake in Chile.[67]

Damage and casualties

People were found dead after the earthquake struck, mostly under buildings and inside cars. Many people were also seriously injured. Most injuries were reported in Santiago and Maule.

According to an Associated Press Television News cameraman, some buildings collapsed in Santiago and there were power outages in parts of the city.[68] A fire was reported in a chemical plant on the outskirts of Santiago and caused the evacuation of the neighborhood. Santiago's International Airport seemed to have been damaged and the airport authority closed off all flight operations for 24 hours from around 12:00 UTC. On Sunday, 28 February, Ricardo Ortega, head of the Chilean Air Force, said commercial airline services had been partially re-established and aircraft were being allowed to land in Santiago.[69]

Santiago's national Fine Arts Museum was badly damaged and did not reopen until 9 March 2010.[70] An apartment building's two-story parking lot collapsed, wrecking 68 cars. According to one health official, three hospitals in Santiago collapsed, and a dozen more south of the capital also suffered significant damage.[71] In Valparaíso, a tsunami wave of 1.29m (04.23feet) was reported. The port of Valparaíso was ordered to close due to the damage caused by the earthquake. The port started to resume limited operations on 28 February.[72] In Viña del Mar, a touristic city and part of Greater Valparaíso, several buildings were structurally damaged, principally in the district Plan de Viña.[73]

Many cities in the Maule region were seriously affected by the earthquake which triggered more than 1,000 landslides, a significant contributor to earthquake fatalities. Mapped from satellite images, most landslides occurring in the Principal Andean Cordillera and a constrained area on the Arauco Peninsula. Curanipe, only 8km (05miles) from the epicenter, was hit by a tsunami after the earthquake and still remained isolated from outside as of 28 February.[74] A surfer said the tsunami "...was like the one in Thailand, a sudden rise of water. One could not estimate the dimension of the wave, because it was advancing foam. There were 10 to 15 rises, the last one being at 08:30 in the morning."[75] In Talca, the capital of the Maule region, many dead were trapped in the rubble. The administrative building was uninhabitable, and the authorities had to be set up in the parade ground.[76] All but two of the local hospital's thirteen wings were in ruins. Dr. Claudio Martínez was quoted as saying, "We're only keeping the people in danger of dying." Hospital staff attempted to transport some patients to Santiago on Sunday morning, but roads were blocked.[77]

Damaged buildings and fires were reported in Concepción.[78] Rescue teams had difficulty accessing Concepción because of the damaged infrastructure. The fifteen-story residential building "Alto Río" toppled, trapping many of the residents. As the building was newly completed, 19 of the apartments were occupied and 36 were of unknown occupancy.[79] [80] [81] A 2.34m (07.68feet) tsunami wave hit Talcahuano, a port city and part of the Concepción conurbation. The tsunami caused serious damage to port facilities and lifted boats out of the water. In the fishing town of Dichato, of 7,000 residents, it was the third tsunami wave that ended up being the most damaging.[82]

Dilapidated buildings could be seen on the streets of Temuco, about 400km (200miles) from the epicenter. The adobe of some buildings fell. Façades fell in pieces and crushed cars. Two people were reported dead because of not having been able to escape from a nightclub. On 27 February, it was reported that "finding an open business [was] almost impossible" ("Encontrar un negocio abierto es casi imposible").[83] [84] Further south, in the city of Valdivia damage to houses were restricted to areas of poor soil quality, chiefly former wetlands and artificial fills. Some pavements near the rivershore in Valdivia cracked and collapsed much like in the 1960 earthquake. Overall there was little damage in Valdivia and this was highly localized. A survey showed that 434 persons in Valdivia had their homes damaged by the earthquake.

The earthquake also triggered more than 1,000 landslides mapped from satellite images [85] with most landslides occurring in the Principal Andean Cordillera and a constrained area on the Arauco Peninsula[86] Landslides are a significant contributor to earthquake fatalities. In Chile, 370,000 homes were damaged.[87] The final death toll of 525 victims and 25 people missing was announced by authorities in January 2011. This is down from early reports on 3 March of 802 people dead.[88]

The Chilean National Emergency Office (Oficina Nacional de Emergencia) estimated that the intensity of the earthquake was 9 on the Mercalli intensity scale in the Biobío Region and 8 in Santiago.[89] USGS put the intensity in Talcahuano at MM VIII, in Santiago and Concepción at MM VII and in Valparaíso at MM VI.[8]

On 10 March, Swiss Reinsurance Co. estimated that the Chilean quake would cost the insurance industry between 4 and 7 billion dollars. The same estimate was echoed by the rival German-based Munich Re AG.[16]

Modified Mercalli intensities for some localities

Locality Country USGS[90] SS Population
VII 45k
II
VIII 25k
VII 55k
VII 13k
VIII 18k
II
VIII 20k
VI 12k
VIII 31k
VII 83k
VII 150k
VII 17k
VII 7k
VII 16k
VIII IX 215k
VIII 38k
III
V
VIII 93k
V 4k
VIII 31k
VII 102k
V 47k
VIII 23k
VII 8k
IV 73k
VII 23k
VII 49k
III
VI 23k
VII 17k
VII 25k
VI 26k
VI 29k
Las Ánimas VI 30k
Las Gaviotas V 2k
VII 22k
VII 22k
VII 36k
VII 70k
VI 17k
VI 16k
VII 6k
VII 57k
VII 125k
VII 50k
VII 28k
VII 63k
V 877k
VII 29k
VII 22k
VII 21k
IV 242k
VI 19k
VI 136k
VII 33k
VI 16k
VIII 27k
VII 66k
VII 46k
VI 14k
V
VII 68k
VII 130k
VII VIII 213k
VII 38k
V 15k
VI 13k
VII 86k
VII 250k
VII 32k
VII 14k
VII 59k
VII 22k
V 447k
V 184k
V 83k
V 109k
VII 23k
VII 33k
VII VIII 4,837k
VII 52k
VII VIII 197k
VII 253k
VII VIII 238k
VII 7k
III
VIII 47k
VII 14k
VI VI 133k
VII VI 282k
VII 25k
III-IV
VI 9k
VII 97k
VI 32k
VII VI 295k
VII 11k
Notes: USGS=United States Geological Survey, SS=Chile's Seismological Service.

Identified fatalities

The records of deaths were reported by a number of different agencies at different figures immediately after the earthquake. The official total is 525 dead, 25 missing[2] not all of which are identified in the table below.

Deaths caused by the earthquake and tsunami by region
Region27. February[91] 28. February[92] 1. March[93] 2. March[94] 3. March[95] 4. March[96] 5. March[97] 8. March[98]
050Valparaíso4161618201624
055Metropolitana13363838382123
060O'Higgins1246484848346
070Maule34541544587587177269
080Biobio106464929256120
090Araucanía55131314615
National total78708723796799279452497

Population with destroyed or severely damaged homes

The table below shows the percentage of the regional population whose homes were destroyed or were severely damaged by the earthquake and tsunami in the six most affected regions. The data were collected between May and June 2010.

Region
(north to south) 		Percentage of
regional population
7.4
4.8
12.2
20.7
17.8
5.1
Total (six regions) 8.8
Source: Casen Post-Earthquake Survey, Ministry of Planning.

South of Araucanía Region, in the city of Valdivia, 35 houses were destroyed and 44 others were damaged.[99]

Humanitarian response

See main article: Humanitarian response to the 2010 Chile earthquake and Timeline of relief efforts after the 2010 Chile earthquake. Despite President Michelle Bachelet's earlier statement that Chile would only ask for international aid once it had assessed the extent of the damage, leaders of many countries and intergovernmental organizations, including the United Nations and European Union, responded to the earthquake and sent messages of condolence to the government and people of Chile over the loss of life and property. Argentina, Mexico, the United States, United Kingdom, People's Republic of China, Singapore, Haiti, and Pakistan were among the countries that responded earliest following the quake.[100] [101] Appeals for humanitarian aid were issued by the UK-based Oxfam, Save the Children, and others.

Chilean television host Don Francisco led a telethon called Chile helps Chile with the goal of raising 15 billion pesos (about US$29 million) needed to build 30,000 emergency houses ("mediaguas"). The charity event, which ran for 24 hours in Santiago starting on Friday 5 March at 22:00, was summoned by the government and organized by several Chilean NGOs. At 23:00 on Saturday the goal was doubled, collecting 30.2 billion pesos (about US$58 million).[102]

The Chilean NGO Un Techo para Chile constructed 23,886 transitional houses for families affected by the earthquake.[103]

Conditions in the aftermath

Chaos and disorder

Nearly half the places in the country were declared "catastrophe zones", and curfews were imposed in some areas of looting and public disorder.[104] On 28 February 2010, a day after the earthquake, some affected cities were chaotic, with extensive looting of supermarkets in Concepción. Items stolen included not only food and other necessities, but also electronic goods and other durable merchandise. To control vandalism, a special force of carabineros (police) was sent to disperse rioters with tear gas and water cannons.[105] However, measures were taken late. The outgoing president didn't want to remind people of the Dictatorship years by militarizing the streets, thus failed to provide assistance on time to the city. When the situation became unsustainable and all sectors of the population were demanding actions, the government authorized the use of the military to control the affected cities. Despite these and other government acts (including the curfews), pillaging continued in both urban and rural areas of the affected zones.[106] Reportedly, military police arrested 160 in Concepción on 1 and 2 March.[107]

In Concepción, despite the militarization of the zone, mobs continued to steal from supermarkets and went as far as to set one store ablaze.[108] The government warned looters they would face the full weight of the law, as penalties for stealing are increased under a state of catastrophe. A week after the quake the police—tipped by neighbors—arrested three people with massive quantities of looted goods stashed in their homes. Other looted goods such as mattresses, furniture, television sets and other electronic appliances were abandoned in the streets of Concepción during the following days.[109]

According to the BBC on 5 March, the city and fishing port of Talcahuano, which lies but a few kilometers down the coast from Concepción, has been left largely to fend for itself. Neighbourhood vigilante groups, including one led by a public works employee with a gun license, and the few police present allow such behavior as residents' siphoning fuel from tanks at a petrol station, but step in if someone starts to attack a cash machine. One man stated, "I've personally saved dozens of people from attack in this apartment block."[110]

Chileans living in regions not affected by the earthquake (including those living abroad) also grieved, as they sought to learn more regarding kinsmen and friends affected by the earthquake. In the hardest-hit zones there was no communication with the exterior because of the failure of electricity and the destruction of telephone lines.[106]

Prison escape

In the prison of El Manzano in Concepción, a prison riot began after a failed escape attempt by the inmates. Different parts of the prison were set afire and the riot was brought under control only after the guards shot into the air and received help from military units.[111]

By 1 March, prison guards in a prison in Chillán had recaptured 36 of 203 prisoners who had escaped following the earthquake. During their escape, prisoners burned seven houses close to the prison. A witness in Chillán asserted that he had been robbed by prisoners with a machine gun who had also forced his girlfriend to kiss them. Another witness alleged sexual molestation by around twenty men who were believed to be escaped prisoners. The leading Chilean newspaper El Mercurio described the situation in Chillán as reminiscent of the "Wild West".[111]

Government response

Four hours after the earthquake, when the death count was still low, President Bachelet gave a press conference in which she informed the population of the situation and stated that Chile did not yet need international aid.[112] However, about two million people were affected by the quake with more than 500,000 houses uninhabitable. In many cities, people slept in tents, in parks or simply on the streets for fear of aftershocks. The government began distributing food and other vital aid around the country.[113]

On 28 February, President Bachelet said that her government had reached an agreement with the major supermarkets which would allow them to give away basic foodstuffs in stock to people affected by the earthquake.[114] By 28 February, the Santiago Metro rapid-transit network was already partially up and running and expected to be fully operative on the following day, 1 March.[115]

On 4 March, President-elect Sebastián Piñera, who assumed office on 11 March, was quoted as saying that his goals were "to cope with the emergency needs of citizens, find people who are still missing, provide prompt and timely assistance to the sick and wounded, and restore law and order so that people can return to peace."[116]

Economic recovery

Authorities of the central port city of San Antonio speaking on 3 March 2010, stated that the port had returned to eighty percent of capacity. On the same date, Raul Maturana, a spokesman for the Federation of Port Workers' union, stated that the port of Valparaíso was operating normally. However, ports in southern Chile, which were closer to the epicenter, remained closed.[117]

On 4 March, President Bachelet said that Chile would need international loans and three to four years to rebuild.[118]

Food scarcity

On 10 March the National Commission for Agricultural emergencies (CNEA) assured that milk and wheat prices would not rise, despite fears of lack of fuel supply for transport and harvest of these products. In the same CNEA report the mill associations of central and southern Chile are said to have expressed that they had currently no production difficulties.[119] Despite this on 11 March newspaper La Segunda cited the president of the bakeries association complaining on unjustified price rises for flour, who said of cases of price rises of 10 to 20%.[120]

The earthquake affected production at the Compañía de Cervecerías Unidas (CCU) and Cervecería Chile factories that together have a 90% share of the Chilean beer market. With an average annual per capita consumption of 36 liters, scarcity caused prices to rise from 990–1500 to 2000 Chilean pesos per litre. CCU responded by increasing capacity of their plant in Temuco that did not suffer major damage during the earthquake and by importing beer from their factories in Argentina. 50 trucks with beer are reported to have reached Santiago from Argentina. In March 2010, ten CCU executives said that the country will not run out of beer and that within two to three months production levels would be normalized.[121] Liquor store owners expressed complaints regarding a beer rationing scheme implemented by CCU. The scarcity favored consumption of "premium beers" like Kunstmann and Paceña.[122]

Tsunami

A tsunami warning was first declared for Chile and Peru,[123] and a tsunami watch for Ecuador, Colombia, Antarctica, Panama and Costa Rica.[124] [125] The warning was later extended to a Pacific Ocean-wide warning, covering all coastal areas on the Pacific Ocean except the west coast of the United States, British Columbia, and Alaska.[126] Hawaiian media reported that tsunami warning sirens first sounded at 06:00 local time.[127] The U.S. Tsunami Warning Center issued advisories about potential tsunami of less than 1m (03feet) striking the Pacific Ocean coastline between California and most of Alaska late in the afternoon or through the evening 12 or more hours after the initial earthquake.[128] The tsunami warning was cancelled for all countries except Japan and Russia in PTWC Bulletin 18 of 00:12 UTC on 28 February 2010.[129]

In general, tsunamis tend to come in several waves, of which the first may not be the highest.[130] [131]

The U.S. National Weather Service's Pacific Tsunami Warning Center issued a tsunami warning throughout a huge swathe of the Pacific region, including Antarctica.[132] In the Americas, the warning extended to Chile (including Easter Island), Colombia, Costa Rica, Ecuador, El Salvador, Guatemala, Mexico, and Panama.[132] A warning was also issued for the Oceania and Pacific Islands nations and territories of American Samoa, Australia, the Cook Islands, the Federated States of Micronesia (including the FSM states of Chuuk, Kosrae, Pohnpei and Yap), Fiji, French Polynesia, Guam, Hawaii, Jarvis Island, Johnston Island, the Kermadec Islands, Kiribati, Marcus Island, the Marshall Islands, Midway Island, New Caledonia, New Zealand, Niue, the Northern Mariana Islands, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Pitcairn Islands, Samoa, the Solomon Islands, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Wallis and Futuna and Wake Island.[132] Tsunami warnings were also in effect as far away as East and Southeast Asia including Japan, Indonesia, Hong Kong,[133] the Philippines, Russia and Taiwan.[132]

Coastal areas of Canada's westernmost province British Columbia was under a tsunami advisory, and this was the most alarming advisory as the earthquake occurred during the same time as the 2010 Winter Olympics in Vancouver. No large wave was expected to strike British Columbia, but strong local ocean currents combined with a wave put low-lying coastal regions at risk of flooding.[134] The first wave was expected to reach southern British Columbia at 15:11 local time.[134] Residents were advised to avoid beaches, harbors and marinas.[135]

A tsunami advisory was also issued for coastal areas of California, Oregon, Washington and southern Alaska in the United States.[136] This tsunami advisory was canceled as of 07:13 UTD on 28 February.[137]

Russian authorities lifted a tsunami alert for the Kamchatka coast, after the arrival of a 0.8m (02.6feet) surge that caused no damage.[138] The tsunami was also reported to be small along the Japanese coast, and passed without incident. Many coastal areas in Japan had been evacuated as a precaution.[139]

The projections use DART (Deep-ocean Assessment and Reporting of Tsunamis) gauges spread along the sea floor, which is a fairly new technology. Initial deep sea readings showed wave height of 25cm (10inches), which is huge for deep water, according to Gerard Fryer of the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center. He went on to say, "although it was huge, we didn't quite know what it meant because we haven't much experience with those. As we get more under our belts, we'll get better."

Chile

Some 30 minutes after the first shock, consecutive tsunamis hit coastal towns, among which Constitución suffered the hardest damage, with maximum wave heights of approximately,[140] and around 350 people killed.[141] subsequently, a tsunami amplitude of up to 2.6m (08.5feet) high was recorded in the sea at Valparaíso.[142] [143] A wave amplitude of 2.34abbr=onNaNabbr=on was recorded at Talcahuano in the Biobío Region.[144] Robinson Crusoe Island, the largest of the Juan Fernández Islands, was struck by a large wave which led to the deaths of four people on the island, with eleven people reported as missing, according to Provincial Governor Ivan De La Maza. President Bachelet is reported to have sent an aid mission to the remote island.[145] [146]

As a precaution against the coming tsunami, partial evacuation was ordered in Easter Island, about 3510km (2,180miles) away from the coast of Chile. The tsunami wave arrived in Easter Island at 12:05 UTC, measuring 0.35m (01.15feet).[147] [148]

On 27 February, defense minister Francisco Vidal said that the Chilean Navy had made a mistake by not immediately issuing a tsunami warning after the earthquake, a step that could have helped coastal villagers flee to higher ground sooner. However, an alarm was later sounded by port captains and saved some lives.[149] Mariano Rojas Bustos, then head of Chile's oceanographic service SHOA, which is part of the country's navy, was later fired for the organization's failure to provide clear warnings about the tsunami.[150]

Asia Pacific

New ZealandInitially, the New Zealand Ministry of Civil Defence and Emergency Management (CDEM) said they did not expect a tsunami to reach New Zealand,[151] but later issued a warning stating that waves of up to 1m (03feet) high were likely for the eastern[152] and later the entire New Zealand coast.[153] By 19:55 UTC (08:40 local), CDEM reported wave activity of 50cm (20inches) in the Chatham Islands,[154] and 2m (07feet) surges were reported there later in the morning.[155] A surge 2.2m (07.2feet) high hit the South Island's Banks Peninsula,[153] [156] while surges up to 1m (03feet) high were reported in the northern North Island.[157] By mid afternoon (local time), Civil Defence had downgraded the tsunami warning to an alert, while still advising that sea levels could change quickly for up to 24 hours from the initial surge.[158]
AntarcticaThe U.S. Antarctic Program's coastal station along the Antarctic Peninsula, Palmer Station, went on a tsunami alert shortly after the earthquake struck Chile. To prepare for a possible tsunami, station personnel removed all Zodiac boats from the water and moved any materials from low-lying areas that waves could have swept away. Personnel also retreated to the station's highest building, GWR, while the tsunami warning was in effect, Ellis said. Palmer personnel developed a tsunami emergency plan following the 2004 earthquake in the Indian Ocean that created a tsunami that killed more than 230,000 people in 14 countries. While no noticeable tsunami occurred at Palmer, the station tide monitor displayed bumps of several centimeters, signifying that a small wave had indeed reached the shores of Anvers Island.[159]
AustraliaThe Joint Australian Tsunami Warning Center (JATWC) sent out tsunami warnings for New South Wales, Queensland, Lord Howe Island, Norfolk Island, Tasmania, and Victoria. The organization warned of the possibility of dangerous waves, strong ocean currents and foreshore flooding to occur on the east coast of Australia for several hours on Sunday.[160] As a result of the warnings, patrolled beaches in New South Wales and Queensland remained closed (red flags) and lifeguards ushered people to leave the water. However beach goers and surfers ignored the warnings. Numerous onlookers also crowded parts of the shore to view potential effects of the tsunami.[161] The beach ban was lifted by the end of the day and there was no reports of damage, flooding or other emergencies. Tsunami waves of between NaNcm (-2,147,483,648inches) were recorded and their surges were believed to have created strong currents. Increases in sea levels include: Norfolk Island 50cm (20inches), Gold Coast (Qld) 20cm (10inches), Port Kembla (NSW) 14cm (06inches), Southport (Tas) 17cm (07inches).[161]
French PolynesiaA wave measuring up to 1.8m (05.9feet) high struck portions of French Polynesia between 15:50 to 17:50 UTC with no reports of injuries .[162] A wave 4 meters high was reported to have struck Hiva Oa in the Marquesas Islands.[163] The first waves were expected to hit the main island of Tahiti at approximately 16:50 UTC (07:50 local). Cars and other automobiles were banned from roads closer than 500m (1,600feet) from the Pacific Ocean.

Réseau France Outre-mer in Papeete reported that a wave measuring less than 1m (03feet) passed east of the Gambier Islands with no damage, according to Monique Richeton, the mayor of Rikitea.[164] Residents of the Tuamotus, which are low-lying, were told to move to the highest points on the island.

American SamoaThe first wave was expected to reach American Samoa, which was still recovering from the 2009 Samoa earthquake and tsunami, at 08:51 local time.[165] Lieutenant Governor Ipulasi Aitofele Sunia urged residents not to rush to A'oloau, a high elevation area on Tutuila, as it could cause traffic jams, putting safety at risk.[165] Many coastal towns, including the main city of Pago Pago, had already been heavily damaged in the 2009 tsunami. The first wave arrived on Pago Plaza at 21:58 UTC.
PhilippinesThe Philippine Institute of Volcanology and Seismology (Phivolcs) issued an advisory that tsunami wave(s) were expected to hit the eastern coast of the Philippines on Sunday between 05:00 and 06:30 UTC (13:00 and 14:30 local). Residents of 19 eastern provinces "are advised to prepare for possible evacuation."[166] However, at 15:15 on 28 February 2010, all warnings were canceled.[167]
HawaiiUnited States Senators Daniel Inouye and Daniel Akaka issued a joint press release announcing the first tsunami evacuation in Hawaii since 1994.[168] [169] Warning sirens were sounded throughout the state, as hotels in Waikiki evacuated tourists at 6 a.m. People in tall buildings were encouraged to move above the third floor. Waves measuring 2.7m (08.9feet) high were originally predicted to strike Hilo Bay on the Big Island of Hawai'i at 11:05 local time (21:05 GMT),[170] but by 11:18, major receding and waves had not been reported on the shoreline. By 11:40, several waves hit the islands amounting to raising and lowering of the sea near the coast, and a fourth wave hit around 13:12. The tsunami warning for Hawaii was canceled in the early afternoon on Saturday, 27 February.

Gerard Fryer, a geophysicist for the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center was quoted as saying: "We expected the waves to be bigger in Hawaii, maybe about 50 percent bigger than they actually were."[171] Early in the morning, the Center expected waves of 3m (10feet). In actuality, the highest tsunami waves ended up being about NaNm (-2,147,483,648feet) peak to trough.[172]

North America

British ColumbiaAt around 23:00 UTC (15:00 local), a tsunami warning was issued for coastal British Columbia. Extra precautions were already in place due to the 2010 Winter Olympics being held in Vancouver at the time.[173]
CaliforniaSmall waves were expected in Southern California, and receding was reported at Long Beach. Minor damage was reported on some coastal areas. The tsunami damaged navigation buoys at Ventura.[174] Additionally, a boat was torn loose from its mooring and minor erosion occurred within Ventura Harbor. Damage to docks and pilings in the area was moderate.[175]
GuerreroIn Guerrero, surges of between 30cm (10inches) and 1m (03feet) and receding of up to 10m (30feet) were reported, and three small vessels were sunk at Tecpán de Galeana. The state tourism authorities announced they would be sending a letter to the CNN news network to protest the "alarming" way in which it had forecast a tsunami for the major tourist destination of Acapulco.[176]

Tsunami-related aid given

Argentina has sent construction teams to Chiloé Island to help reconstruct some of the washed away coastal buildings. In July 2010, the government of Argentina released a statement that they would lend $300 million to Chile for reconstruction efforts using Argentine goods.[177]

Data

The following data, published by the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center and the National Tsunami Warning Center, lists measured and reported values of the tsunami when it arrived at specific places. Some data is taken from the Chilean Army.

Tsunami arrival data[178] [179]
StationCountry or territoryLatitudeLongitudeTime (UTC)Height (m)Height (ft)
34.23 S 72.0 W 06:48 3.02 10.0
36.9 S 75.4 W 06:53 2.34 7.7
33 S 71.6 W 07:08 1.29 4.2
39.9 S 73.4 W 07:39 0.90 2.9
26.3 S 80.1 W 08:15 0.53 1.7
27.1 S 70.8 W 08:34 0.45 1.5
41.9 S 73.8 W 08:38 0.62 2.0
30 S 71.3 W 08:52 1.32 4.3
20.2 S 70.1 W 09:07 0.28 0.9
18 S 86.4 W 09:41 0.24 0.8
23.2 S 70.4 W 09:41 0.49 1.6
18.5 S 70.3 W 10:08 0.94 3.1
12.1 S 77.2 W 10:29 0.36 1.2
27.2 S 109.5 W 12:05 0.35 1.1
9.45 N 84.15 W 14:16 0.24 0.8
0.4 S 90.3 W 14:52 0.35 1.2
8.5 S 125 W 15:31 0.18 0.6
23.1 S 134.9 W 15:59 0.15 0.5
16.0 N 107 W 16:11 0.07 0.2
19.1 N 104.3 W 17:05 0.32 1.0
9.8 S 139.0 W 17:41 1.79 5.9
8.9 S 140.1 W 17:45 0.95 3.1
17.5 N 149.6 W 18:10 0.16 0.5
22.9 N 109.9 W 18:33 0.36 1.2
21.2 S 159.8 W 19:07 0.15 0.5
16.8 N 99.9 W 19:31 0.62 2.0
DART San Diego32.2 N120.7 W19:310.060.2
Lottin Point 37.6 S 178.2 E 19:34 0.15 0.5
23 S 168.1 W 20:03 0.04 0.1
13.8 S 171.8 W 20:18 0.13 0.4
Nukualofa21.1 S175.2 W20:240.10.3
Pago Pago14.3 S170.7 W20:27 0.220.7
Monterey, California36.6 N121.9 W20:31 0.281.1
San Diego, California32.7 N117.2 W20:360.130.4
San Francisco, California37.8 N122.5 W21:200.260.8
Hilo, Hawaii19.7 N154.9 W21:200.862.8
Kuamalapau, Hawaii20.8 N156.9 W21:360.180.6
Kahului, Hawaii20.9 N156.5 W21:470.983.2
Santa Barbara, California34.4 N119.7 W21:500.531.7
Barber's Point, Hawaii21.3 N158.1 W21:570.120.4
Honolulu, Hawaii21.3 N150.4 W22:000.250.8
Kawaihae, Hawaii20 N155.5 W22:110.521.7
Crescent City, California41.7 N124.2 W22:130.371.2
Vanuatu17.8 S168.3 E22:460.150.5
Johnston Atoll16.7 N169.5 W22:480.220.7
Nawiliwili, Hawaii22 N159.4 W23:230.371.2
Sitka, Alaska57.1 N135.3 W00:11 28 Feb0.080.3
Guam Guam13.4 N144.7 E03:070.160.5
Minamitorishima[180] 24.1N153.5E03:430.10.3
DART Saipan19.1 N155.8 E03:550.080.3
Otsuchi, Iwate39.21 N141.54 E06:431.454.35
Yamada, Iwate39.47 N141.95 E08:141.614.85
Hachinohe, Aomori40.30 N141.29 E08:440.92.7
Nemuro, Hokkaido43.20 N145.35 E09:231.03.0
Kuji, Iwate40.11 N141.46 E10:011.23.6
Susaki, Kōchi33.24 N133.17 E10:421.23.6
Shibushi, Kagoshima31.30 N131.03 E10:561.03.0

See also

External links

Notes and References

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  3. Labeled by the local media as "27F", probably influenced by Spanish events, such as the 1981 Spanish coup d'état attempt, known as "23F", or the more recent 2004 Madrid train bombings, called the "11M".
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