Orders of magnitude (length) explained

The following are examples of orders of magnitude for different lengths.

Overview

Scale Range (m) Unit Example items
≥ <
Subatomic–0–Gravitational singularity
10−36 10−33Fixed value (not a range). Quantum foam, string
10−18 10−15 proton, neutron, pion
10−12 Atomic nucleus
10−9 Wavelength of gamma rays and X-rays, hydrogen atom
10−6 DNA helix, virus, wavelength of optical spectrum, transistors used in CPUs
10−3 Bacterium, fog water droplet, human hair's diameter[1]
1 Mosquito, golf ball, domestic cat, violin, football
1 103 Piano, human, automobile, sperm whale, football field, Eiffel Tower
106 Mount Everest, length of Panama Canal and Trans-Siberian Railway, larger asteroid
109 The Moon, Earth, one light-second
1012 Sun, one light-minute, Earth's orbit
1015 Orbits of outer planets, Solar System
1018 A light-year, the distance to Proxima Centauri
1021 Galactic arm
1024 Milky Way, distance to Andromeda Galaxy
1027 Huge-LQG, Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, Observable universe

Detailed list

To help compare different orders of magnitude, the following list describes various lengths between

1.6 x 10-35

 metres and
10122
10
10
metres.

Subatomic scale

Factor (m)MultipleValueItem
000Singularity
10−351 Planck length0.0000162 qm Planck length
typical scale of hypothetical loop quantum gravity or size of a hypothetical string and of branes; according to string theory, lengths smaller than this do not make any physical sense.[2] Quantum foam is thought to exist at this scale.
10−241 yoctometre (ym)142 ymEffective cross section radius of 1 MeV neutrinos[3]
10−211 zeptometre (zm)Preons, hypothetical particles proposed as subcomponents of quarks and leptons; the upper bound for the width of a cosmic string in string theory
7 zmEffective cross section radius of high-energy neutrinos[4]
310 zmDe Broglie wavelength of protons at the Large Hadron Collider (4 TeV)
10−181 attometre (am)Upper limit for the size of quarks and electrons
Sensitivity of the LIGO detector for gravitational waves[5]
Upper bound of the typical size range for "fundamental strings"
10−1710 amRange of the weak force
10−16100 am850 amApproximate proton radius[6]

Atomic to cellular scale

Factor (m)MultipleValueItem
10−151 femtometre (fm, fermi)1 fmApproximate limit of the gluon-mediated color force between quarks
1.5 fmEffective cross section radius of an 11 MeV proton[7]
2.81794 fmClassical electron radius[8]
3 fmApproximate limit of the meson-mediated nuclear binding force[9] [10]
750 to 822.25 fmLongest wavelength of gamma rays
10−121 picometre (pm)1.75 to 15 fmDiameter range of the atomic nucleus[11]
1 pmDistance between atomic nuclei in a white dwarf
2.4 pmCompton wavelength of electron
5 pmWavelength of shortest X-rays
10−1110 pm28 pmRadius of helium atom
53 pmBohr radius (radius of a hydrogen atom)
10−10100 pm100 pm1 ångström (also covalent radius of sulfur atom[12])
154 pmLength of a typical covalent bond (C–C)
280 pmAverage size of the water molecule (actual lengths may vary)
500 pmWidth of protein α helix
10−91 nanometre (nm)1 nmDiameter of a carbon nanotube[13] Diameter of smallest transistor gate (as of 2016)[14]
2 nmDiameter of the DNA helix[15]
2.5 nmSmallest microprocessor transistor gate oxide thickness
3.4 nmLength of a DNA turn (10 bp)[16]
6–10 nmThickness of cell membrane
10−810 nm10 nmUpper range of thickness of cell wall in Gram-negative bacteria[17]
10 nm, the 10 nanometre was the smallest semiconductor device fabrication node[18]
40 nmExtreme ultraviolet wavelength
50 nmFlying height of the head of a hard disk[19]
10−7100 nm121.6 nmWavelength of the Lyman-alpha line[20]
120 nmTypical diameter of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)[21]
400–700 nmApproximate wavelength range of visible light[22]

Cellular to human scale

Factor (m)MultipleValueItem
10−61 micrometre (μm)(also called 1 micron)1–4 μmTypical length of a bacterium[23]
4 μmTypical diameter of spider silk[24]
7 μmTypical size of a red blood cell[25]
10−510 μm10 μmTypical size of a fog, mist, or cloud water droplet
10 μmWidth of transistors in the Intel 4004, the world's first commercial microprocessor
12 μmWidth of acrylic fiber
17-181 μmWidth range of human hair[26]
10−4100 μm340 μmSize of a pixel on a 17-inch monitor with a resolution of 1024×768
560 μmThickness of the central area of a human cornea[27]
750 μmMaximum diameter of Thiomargarita namibiensis, the largest bacterium ever discovered
10−31 millimetre (mm)~5 mmLength of an average flea is 1–10 mm (usually <5 mm)[28]
2.54 mmOne-tenth inch; distance between pins in DIP (dual-inline-package) electronic components
5.70 mmDiameter of the projectile in 5.56×45mm NATO ammunition
10−21 centimetre (cm)20 mmApproximate width of an adult human finger
54 mm × 86 mmDimensions of a credit card, according to the ISO/IEC 7810 ID-1 standard
73–75 mmDiameter of a baseball, according to Major League Baseball guidelines[29]
10−11 decimetre (dm)120 mmDiameter of a compact disc
660 mmLength of the longest pine cones, produced by the sugar pine[30]
900 mmAverage length of a rapier, a fencing sword[31]

Human to astronomical scale

Factor (m)MultipleValueItem
1 (100)1 metre (m)1 m (exactly)Since 2019, defined as the length of the path travelled by light in a vacuum during a time interval of 1/299,792,458 of a second, where the second is defined by a hyperfine transition frequency of caesium.
2.72 mHeight of Robert Wadlow, tallest-known human.[32]
8.38 mLength of a London bus (AEC Routemaster)
1011 decametre (dam)33 mLength of the longest-known blue whale[33]
52 mHeight of the Niagara Falls[34]
93.47 mHeight of the Statue of Liberty
1021 hectometre (hm)105 mLength of a typical football field
137 m (147 m)Height (present and original) of the Great Pyramid of Giza
300 mHeight of the Eiffel Tower, one of the famous monuments of Paris
979 mHeight of the Salto Angel, the world's highest free-falling waterfall (Venezuela)
1031 kilometre (km)2.3 kmLength of the Three Gorges Dam, the largest dam in the world[35] [36]
3.1 kmNarrowest width of the Strait of Messina, separating Italy and Sicily
8.848 kmHeight of Mount Everest, the highest mountain on Earth
10410 km<-- a.k.a. the obsolete term myriametre -->10.9 kmDepth of the Challenger Deep in the Mariana Trench, the deepest-known point on Earth's surface
27 kmCircumference of the Large Hadron Collider, the largest and highest energy particle accelerator
42.195 kmLength of a marathon
105100 km100 kmThe distance the IAU considers to be the limit to space, called the Karman line
163 kmLength of the Suez Canal, connecting the Mediterranean Sea to the Red Sea
491 kmLength of the Pyrenees, the mountain range separating Spain and France
974.6 kmGreatest diameter of the dwarf planet Ceres.[37]
1061 megametre (Mm)2.38 MmDiameter of dwarf planet Pluto, formerly the smallest planet category[38] in the Solar System
3.48 MmDiameter of the Moon
5.2 MmTypical distance covered by the winner of the 24 Hours of Le Mans automobile endurance race
6.259 MmLength of the Great Wall of China
6.371 MmAverage radius of Earth
6.378 MmEquatorial radius of Earth
6.6 MmApproximate length of the two longest rivers, the Nile and the Amazon
7.821 MmLength of the Trans-Canada Highway
9.288 MmLength of the Trans-Siberian Railway, longest in the world

Astronomical scale

Factor (m)MultipleValueItem
10710 Mm12.756 MmEquatorial diameter of Earth
20.004 MmLength of a meridian on Earth (distance between Earth's poles along the surface)[39]
40.075 MmLength of Earth's equator
108100 Mm142.984 MmDiameter of Jupiter
299.792 MmDistance traveled by light in vacuum in one second (a light-second, exactly 299,792,458 m by definition of the speed of light)
384.4 MmMoon's orbital distance from Earth
1091 gigametre (Gm)1.39 GmDiameter of the Sun
5.15 GmGreatest mileage ever recorded by a car (3.2 million miles by a 1966 Volvo P-1800S)[40]
101010 Gm18 GmApproximately one light-minute
1011100 Gm150 Gm1 astronomical unit (au); mean distance between Earth and Sun
10121 terametre (Tm)1.3 TmOptical diameter of Betelgeuse
1.4 TmOrbital distance of Saturn from Sun
2 TmEstimated optical diameter of VY Canis Majoris, one of the largest-known stars
5.9 TmOrbital distance of Pluto from the Sun
~ 7.5 TmOuter boundary of the Kuiper belt
101310 TmDiameter of the Solar System as a whole
16.09 TmTotal length of DNA molecules in all cells of an adult human body[41]
21.49 TmDistance of the Voyager 1 spacecraft from Sun, the farthest man-made object so far[42]
62.03 TmEstimated radius of the event horizon of the supermassive black hole in NGC 4889, the largest-known black hole to date
1014100 Tm180 TmSize of the debris disk around the star 51 Pegasi[43]
10151 petametre (Pm)~7.5 PmSupposed outer boundary of the Oort cloud (~ 50,000 au)
9.461 PmDistance traveled by light in vacuum in one year; at its current speed, Voyager 1 would need 17,500 years to travel this distance
101610 Pm30.857 Pm1 parsec
39.9 PmDistance to nearest star (Proxima Centauri)
41.3 PmAs of March 2013, distance to nearest discovered extrasolar planet (Alpha Centauri Bc)
1017100 Pm193 PmAs of October 2010, distance to nearest discovered extrasolar planet with potential to support life as presently defined by science (Gliese 581 d)
615 PmApproximate radius of humanity's radio bubble, caused by high-power TV broadcasts leaking through the atmosphere into outer space
10181 exametre (Em)1.9 EmDistance to nearby solar twin (HIP 56948), a star with properties virtually identical to the Sun[44]
101910 Em9.46 EmAverage thickness of Milky Way Galaxy[45] (1,000 to 3,000 ly by 21 cm observations[46])
1020100 Em113.5 EmThickness of Milky Way Galaxy's gaseous disk[47]
10211 zettametre (Zm)
1.54 ZmDistance to SN 1987A, the most recent naked eye supernova
1.62 ZmDistance to the Large Magellanic Cloud (a dwarf galaxy orbiting the Milky Way)
1.66 ZmDistance to the Small Magellanic Cloud (another dwarf galaxy orbiting the Milky Way)
1.9 ZmDiameter of galactic disk of Milky Way Galaxy[48] [49] [50] [51]
6.15 ZmDiameter of the low surface brightness disc halo of the giant spiral galaxy Malin 1
102210 Zm13.25 ZmRadius of the diffuse stellar halo of IC 1101, one of the largest-known galaxies
24 ZmDistance to Andromeda Galaxy
30.857 Zm1 megaparsec
50 ZmDiameter of Local Group of galaxies
1023100 Zm300–600 ZmDistance to Virgo cluster of galaxies
10241 yottametre (Ym)2.19 YmDiameter of the Local Supercluster and the largest voids and filaments
2.8 YmEnd of Greatness
~5 YmDiameter of the Horologium Supercluster[52]
9.461 YmDiameter of the Pisces–Cetus Supercluster Complex, the supercluster complex which includes Earth
102510 Ym13 YmLength of the Sloan Great Wall, a giant wall of galaxies (galactic filament)[53]
30.857 Ym1 gigaparsec
37.84 YmLength of the Huge-LQG, a group of 73 quasars
1026100 Ym95 YmEstimated light travel distance to certain quasars. Length of the Hercules–Corona Borealis Great Wall, a colossal wall of galaxies, the largest and the most massive structure in the observable universe as of 2014
127 YmEstimated light travel distance to GN-z11, the most distant object ever observed
870 YmApproximate diameter (comoving distance) of the visible universe
10271 Rm1.2 RmLower bound of the (possibly infinite) radius of the universe, if it is a 3-sphere, according to one estimate using the WMAP data at 95% confidence[54] It equivalently implies that there are at minimum 21 particle horizon-sized volumes in the universe.
3.8 RmLower bound of the homogeneous universe derived from the Planck spacecraft[55] -->
10115
10
[56]
10115
10
m
10115
10
m		According to the laws of probability, the distance one must travel until one encounters a volume of space identical to our observable universe with conditions identical to our own.[57] [58]
10122
10
10
10122
10
10
m
10122
10
10
m		Minimal size of universe after cosmological inflation, implied by one resolution of the No-Boundary Proposal[59]

1 quectometre and less

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to . To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths shorter than 10−30 m (1 qm).

1 rontometre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to .

10 rontometres

1 yoctometre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to .

1 zeptometre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to . To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−21 m and 10−20 m (1 zm and 10 zm).

10 zeptometres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−20 m and 10−19 m (10 zm and 100 zm).

100 zeptometres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−19 m and 10−18 m (100 zm and 1 am).

1 attometre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to . To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−18 m and 10−17 m (1 am and 10 am).

10 attometres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−17 m and 10−16 m (10 am and 100 am).

100 attometres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−16 m and 10−15 m (100 am and 1 fm).

1 femtometre (or 1 fermi)

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to . In particle physics, this unit is sometimes called a , also with abbreviation "fm". To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−15 metres and 10−14 metres (1 femtometre and 10 fm).

10 femtometres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−14 m and 10−13 m (10 fm and 100 fm).

100 femtometres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−13 m and 10−12 m (100 fm and 1 pm).

1 picometre

The (SI symbol: pm) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to . To help compare different orders of magnitude this section lists lengths between 10−12 and 10−11 m (1 pm and 10 pm).

10 picometres

To help compare different orders of magnitude this section lists lengths between 10−11 and 10−10 m (10 pm and 100 pm).

100 picometres

To help compare different orders of magnitude this section lists lengths between 10−10 and 10−9 m (100 pm and 1 nm; 1 Å and 10 Å).

1 nanometre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to . To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−9 and 10−8 m (1 nm and 10 nm).

10 nanometres

To help compare different orders of magnitude this section lists lengths between 10−8 and 10−7 m (10 nm and 100 nm).

100 nanometres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−7 and 10−6 m (100 nm and 1 μm).

1 micrometre (or 1 micron)

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to . To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists some items with lengths between 10−6 and 10−5 m (between 1 and 10 micrometres, or μm).

10 micrometres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−5 m and 10−4 m (10 μm and 100 μm).

100 micrometres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−4 m and 10−3 m (100 μm and 1 mm). The term myriometre (abbr. mom, equivalent to 100 micrometres; frequently confused with the myriametre, 10 kilometres)[89] is deprecated; the decimal metric prefix myrio- is obsolete and was not included among the prefixes when the International System of Units was introduced in 1960.

1 millimetre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to . To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−3 m and 10−2 m (1 mm and 1 cm).

1 centimetre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to . To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10−2 m and 10−1 m (1 cm and 1 dm).

1 decimetre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to . To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10 centimetres and 100 centimetres (10−1 metre and 1 metre).

Conversions

10 centimetres (abbreviated to 10 cm) is equal to:

Wavelengths

Human-defined scales and structures

Nature

Astronomical

1 metre

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between one metre and ten metres.Light, in vacuum, travels 1 metre in, or of a second.

Conversions

1 metre is:

Human-defined scales and structures

Sports

Nature

Astronomical

1 decametre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 10 metres (101 m). To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10 and 100 metres.

Conversions

10 metres (very rarely termed a decametre which is abbreviated as dam) is equal to:

Human-defined scales and structures

Sports

Nature

Astronomical

1 hectometre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 100 metres (102 m). To compare different orders of magnitude this section lists lengths between 100 metres and 1,000 metres (1 kilometre).

Conversions

100 metres (sometimes termed a hectometre) is equal to:

Human-defined scales and structures

Sports

Nature

Astronomical

1 kilometre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to  metres (103 m). To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 1 kilometre and 10 kilometres (103 and 104 metres).

Conversions

1 kilometre (unit symbol km) is equal to:

Human-defined scales and structures

Nature

Geographical

See also: List of highest mountains on Earth.

Astronomical

10 kilometres (1 myriametre)

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 10 and 100 kilometres (104 to 105 metres). The myriametre[125] (sometimes also spelled myriometre; 10,000 metres) is a deprecated unit name; the decimal metric prefix myria-[126] (sometimes also written as myrio-[127] [128] [129]) is obsolete[130] [131] and was not included among the prefixes when the International System of Units was introduced in 1960.

Conversions

10 kilometres is equal to:

Sports

Human-defined scales and structures

Geographical

Astronomical

100 kilometres

A length of 100 kilometres (about 62 miles), as a rough amount, is relatively common in measurements on Earth and for some astronomical objects.It is the altitude at which the FAI defines spaceflight to begin.

To help compare orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths between 100 and 1,000 kilometres (105 and 106 metres).

Conversions

A distance of 100 kilometres is equal to about 62 miles (or 100disp=out8disp=out).

Human-defined scales and structures

Geographical

Astronomical

1 megametre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to  metres (106 m). To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths starting at 106 m (1 Mm or 1,000 km).

Conversions

1 megametre is equal to:

Human-defined scales and structures

Sports

Geographical

Astronomical

10 megametres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths starting at 107 metres (10 megametres or 10,000 kilometres).

Conversions

10 megametres (10 Mm) is

Human-defined scales and structures

Geographical

Astronomical

100 megametres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists lengths starting at 108 metres (100 megametres or 100,000 kilometres or 62,150 miles).

1 gigametre

lower part: their darker mirror images
(artist's interpretation).

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to  metres (109 m). To help compare different distances this section lists lengths starting at 109 metres (1 gigametre (Gm) or 1 billion metres).

10 gigametres

To help compare different distances this section lists lengths starting at 1010 metres (10 gigametres (Gm) or 10 million kilometres, or 0.07 astronomical units).

100 gigametres

To help compare distances at different orders of magnitude this section lists lengths starting at 1011 metres (100 gigametre or 100 million kilometres or 0.7 astronomical units).

1 terametre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to  metres (1012 m). To help compare different distances, this section lists lengths starting at 1012 m (1 Tm or 1 billion km or 6.7 astronomical units).

10 terametres

To help compare different distances this section lists lengths starting at 1013 m (10 Tm or 10 billion km or 67 astronomical units).

100 terametres

To help compare different distances this section lists lengths starting at 1014 m (100 Tm or 100 billion km or 670 astronomical units).

1 petametre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1015 metres. To help compare different distances this section lists lengths starting at 1015 m (1 Pm or 1 trillion km or 6685 astronomical units (AU) or 0.11 light-years).

10 petametres

To help compare different distances this section lists lengths starting at 1016 m (10 Pm or 66,800 AU, 1.06 light-years).

100 petametres

To help compare different distances this section lists lengths between 1017 m (100 Pm or 11 light-years) and 1018 m (106 light-years).

1 exametre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1018 metres. To help compare different distances this section lists lengths between 1018 m (1 Em or 105.7 light-years) and 1019 m (10 Em or 1,057 light-years).

10 exametres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 10 Em (1019 m or 1,100 light-years).

100 exametres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 100 Em (1020 m or 11,000 light-years).

1 zettametre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1021 metres.[184] To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 1 Zm (1021 m or 110,000 light-years).

10 zettametres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 10 Zm (1022 m or 1.1 million light-years).

100 zettametres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 100 Zm (1023 m or 11 million light-years).

1 yottametre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1024 metres.[184]

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 1 Ym (1024 m or 105.702 million light-years).

10 yottametres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 10 Ym (1025 m or 1.1 billion light-years). At this scale, expansion of the universe becomes significant. Distance of these objects are derived from their measured redshifts, which depends on the cosmological models used.

100 yottametres

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 100 Ym (1026 m or 11 billion light-years). At this scale, expansion of the universe becomes significant. Distance of these objects are derived from their measured redshifts, which depend on the cosmological models used.

1 ronnametre

The (SI symbol: ) is a unit of length in the metric system equal to 1027 metres.[184]

To help compare different orders of magnitude, this section lists distances starting at 1 Rm (1027 m or 110 billion light-years). At this scale, expansion of the universe becomes significant. Distance of these objects are derived from their measured redshifts, which depend on the cosmological models used.

See also

External links

Notes and References

  1. The diameter of human hair ranges from 17 to 181 μm Web site: Diameter of a human hair. Brian. Ley. 1999. The Physics Factbook. Elert. Glenn. 8 December 2018.
  2. Cliff. Burgess. Fernando. Quevedo. Fernando Quevedo. The Great Cosmic Roller-Coaster Ride. . 55. November 2007. 297. 5. 10.1038/scientificamerican1107-52. 13 March 2024 . 17990824. 2007SciAm.297e..52B. 1 May 2017.
  3. Web site: Carl R.. Nave. Cowan and Reines Neutrino Experiment . HyperPhysics. 4 December 2008. (6.3 × 10−44 cm2, which gives an effective radius of about 1.42 × 10−22 m)
  4. Web site: Carl R.. Nave. Neutron Absorption Cross-sections . HyperPhysics. 4 December 2008. (area for 20 GeV about 10 × 10−42 m2 gives effective radius of about 2 × 10−21 m; for 250 GeV about 150 × 10−42 m2 gives effective radius of about 7 × 10−21 m)
  5. On 14 September 2015 at 09:50:45 UTC the two detectors of the Laser Interferometer Gravitational-Wave Observatory simultaneously observed a transient gravitational-wave signal. The signal sweeps upwards in frequency from 35 to 250 Hz with a peak gravitational-wave strain of 1.0×10−21.. 10.1103/PhysRevLett.116.061102. 26918975. Observation of Gravitational Waves from a Binary Black Hole Merger. Physical Review Letters. 116. 6. 061102. 2016. Abbott. B. P. . etal . 2016PhRvL.116f1102A. 1602.03837. 124959784.
  6. Pohl . R. . etal . The size of the proton. Nature. 466. 7303. 213–6. July 2010. 20613837. 10.1038/nature09250. 2010Natur.466..213P. 4424731 .
  7. Web site: Nave, Carl R. . Scattering cross section . 10 February 2009. (diameter of the scattering cross section of an 11 MeV proton with a target proton)
  8. Web site: . CODATA Value: classical electron radius . The NIST Reference on Constants, Units, and Uncertainty.
  9. Web site: The strength of the known forces . Matt . Strassler . Matt Strassler. profmattstrassler.com. 30 May 2013 .
  10. Web site: The four forces: The strong interaction . Kolena . Duke University . Astrophysics Dept website.
  11. Web site: The Scale of the Universe. H. E. Smith. UCSD. ~10−13cm. 10 February 2009.
  12. Web site: Mark. Winter. WebElements Periodic Table of the Elements / Sulfur / Radii. 2008. 6 December 2008.
  13. Flahaut E, Bacsa R, Peigney A, Laurent C. Gram-scale CCVD synthesis of double-walled carbon nanotubes. Chemical Communications. 12. 12. 1442–3. June 2003. 12841282. 10.1039/b301514a. 30627446 .
  14. Web site: The world's smallest transistor is 1nm long, physics be damned. 6 October 2016.
  15. Web site: Stewart. Robert. Dr. Radiobiology Software. https://web.archive.org/web/20100630161605/http://rh.healthsciences.purdue.edu/vc/theory/dna/index.html. 30 June 2010. 20 May 2015. dead.
  16. Book: Langevin, Dominique. DNA Interactions with Polymers and Surfactants. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.. Hoboken, NJ. 978-0-470-25818-7. 265. Rita S. Dias. Bjorn. Lindman. 10.1002/9780470286364.ch10. Chapter 10: DNA-Surfactant/Lipid Complexes at Liquid Interfaces. DNA has 20 elementary charges per helical turn over the corresponding length of 3.4nm. 2008.
  17. Mai-Prochnow. Anne. 2016-12-09. Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria differ in their sensitivity to cold plasma. Scientific Reports. Nature. 6. 38610 . 10.1038/srep38610 . 27934958 . 5146927 . 2016NatSR...638610M .
  18. Web site: Samsung announces industry-first mass production of System-on-Chip with 10nm FinFET technology. F.. Adnan. SamMobile. 17 October 2016 .
  19. Web site: Hard drive basics – Capacities, RPM speeds, interfaces, and mechanics. helpwithpcs.com. 13 July 2016.
  20. Cohn, J. University of California, Berkeley Lyman alpha systems and cosmology. Retrieved 21 February 2009.
  21. Book: Seth. S.D.. Seth. Vimlesh. Textbook of Pharmacology. 2009. Elsevier. 978-81-312-1158-8. X111. 3rd.
  22. Web site: Color. HyperPhysics. 2016. Nave. Carl R. Georgia State University.
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