1980s explained

File:1980s replacement montage02.PNG|thumb|335px|From left, clockwise: The first Space Shuttle, Columbia, lifts off in 1981; US president Ronald Reagan and Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev ease tensions between the two superpowers, leading to the end of the Cold War; The fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 is considered to be one of the most momentous events of the 1980s; In 1981, the IBM Personal Computer is released; In 1985, the Live Aid concert is held in order to fund relief efforts for the famine in Ethiopia during the time Mengistu Haile Mariam ruled the country; Pollution and ecological problems persisted when the Soviet Union and much of the world is filled with radioactive debris from the 1986 Chernobyl disaster, and in 1984, when thousands of people perished in Bhopal during a gas leak from a pesticide plant; The Iran–Iraq War leads to over one million dead and $1 trillion spent, while another war between the Soviets and Afghans leaves over 2 million dead.
rect 2 3 199 169 Space Shuttle Columbiarect 201 1 497 171 End of the Cold Warrect 1 172 118 336 Iran–Iraq Warrect 120 172 241 336 Soviet War in Afghanistanrect 246 173 506 336 Fall of the Berlin Wallrect 123 337 223 525 1983–1985 famine in Ethiopiarect 123 337 323 525 Live Aidrect 326 338 510 536 IBM Personal Computerrect 0 339 121 515 Chernobyl disasterThe 1980s (pronounced "nineteen-eighties", shortened to "the '80s" or "the Eighties") was the decade that began on January 1, 1980, and ended on December 31, 1989.

The decade saw a dominance of conservatism and free market economics, and a socioeconomic change due to advances in technology and a worldwide move away from planned economies and towards laissez-faire capitalism compared to the 1970s. As economic deconstruction increased in the developed world, multiple multinational corporations associated with the manufacturing industry relocated into Thailand, Mexico, South Korea, Taiwan, and China. Japan and West Germany saw large economic growth during this decade. The AIDS epidemic became recognized in the 1980s and has since killed an estimated 40.4 million people .[1] Global warming theory began to spread within the scientific and political community in the 1980s.

The United Kingdom and the United States moved closer to supply-side economic policies, beginning a trend towards global instability of international trade that would pick up more steam in the following decade as the fall of the USSR made right-wing economic policy more powerful.

The final decade of the Cold War opened with the US-Soviet confrontation continuing largely without any interruption. Superpower tensions escalated rapidly as President Reagan scrapped the policy of détente and adopted a new, much more aggressive stance on the Soviet Union. The world came perilously close to nuclear war for the first time since the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962, but the second half of the decade saw a dramatic easing of superpower tensions and ultimately the total collapse of Soviet communism.

Developing countries across the world faced economic and social difficulties as they suffered from multiple debt crises in the 1980s, requiring many of these countries to apply for financial assistance from the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and the World Bank. Ethiopia witnessed widespread famine in the mid-1980s during the corrupt rule of Mengistu Haile Mariam, resulting in the country having to depend on foreign aid to provide food to its population and worldwide efforts to address and raise money to help Ethiopians, such as the Live Aid concert in 1985.

Major civil discontent and violence occurred, including the Angolan Civil War, the Ethiopian Civil War, the Moro conflict, the Salvadoran Civil War, the Ugandan Bush War, the insurgency in Laos, the Iran–Iraq War, the Soviet–Afghan War, the 1982 Lebanon War, the Falklands War, the Second Sudanese Civil War, the Lord's Resistance Army insurgency, and the First Nagorno-Karabakh War. Islamism became a powerful political force in the 1980s and many jihadist organizations, including Al Qaeda, were set up.

By 1986, nationalism was making a comeback in the Eastern Bloc, and the desire for democracy in socialist states, combined with economic recession, resulted in Mikhail Gorbachev's glasnost and perestroika, which reduced Communist Party power, legalized dissent and sanctioned limited forms of capitalism such as joint ventures with companies from capitalist countries. After tension for most of the decade, by 1988 relations between the communist and capitalist blocs had improved significantly[2] and the Soviet Union was increasingly unwilling to defend its governments in satellite states.

1989 brought the overthrow and attempted overthrow of a number of governments led by communist parties, such as in Hungary, the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 in China, the Czechoslovak "Velvet Revolution", Erich Honecker's East German regime, Poland's Soviet-backed government, and the violent overthrow of the Nicolae Ceaușescu regime in Romania. Destruction of the 155-km Berlin Wall, at the end of the decade, signaled a seismic geopolitical shift. The Cold War ended in the early 1990s with the successful Reunification of Germany and the USSR's demise after the August Coup of 1991.

The 1980s was an era of tremendous population growth around the world, surpassing the 1970s and 1990s, and arguably being the largest in human history. During the 1980s, the world population grew from 4.4 to 5.3 billion people. There were approximately 1.33 billion births and 480 million deaths. Population growth was particularly rapid in a number of African, Middle Eastern, and South Asian countries during this decade, with rates of natural increase close to or exceeding 4% annually. The 1980s saw the advent of the ongoing practice of sex-selective abortion in China and India as ultrasound technology permitted parents to selectively abort baby girls.[3]

The 1980s saw great advances in genetic and digital technology. After years of animal experimentation since 1985, the first genetic modification of 10 adult human beings took place in May 1989, a gene tagging experiment[4] which led to the first true gene therapy implementation in September 1990. The first "designer babies", a pair of female twins, were created in a laboratory in late 1989 and born in July 1990 after being sex-selected via the controversial assisted reproductive technology procedure preimplantation genetic diagnosis.[5] Gestational surrogacy was first performed in 1985 with the first birth in 1986, making it possible for a woman to become a biological mother without experiencing pregnancy for the first time in history.[6]

The global internet took shape in academia by the second half of the 1980s, as well as many other computer networks of both academic and commercial use such as USENET, Fidonet, and the bulletin board system. By 1989, the Internet and the networks linked to it were a global system with extensive transoceanic satellite links and nodes in most developed countries.[7] Based on earlier work, from 1980 onwards Tim Berners-Lee formalized the concept of the World Wide Web by 1989. Television viewing became commonplace in the Third World, with the number of TV sets in China and India increasing by 15 and 10 times respectively.[8]

The Atari Video Computer System console became widespread in the first part of the decade, often simply called "Atari". The 1980 Atari VCS port of Space Invaders was its first killer app. The video game crash of 1983 ended the system's popularity and decimated the industry until the Nintendo Entertainment System re-established the console market in North America. The hand-held Game Boy launched in 1989. Super Mario Bros. and Tetris were the decade's best selling games. Pac-Man was the highest grossing arcade game. Home computers became commonplace. The 1981 IBM PC led to a large market for IBM PC compatibles. The 1984 release of the Macintosh popularized the WIMP style of interaction.

Politics and wars

See also: List of sovereign states in the 1980s.

Wars

The most prominent armed conflicts of the decade include:

International wars

The most notable wars of the decade include:

Civil wars and guerrilla wars

The most notable internal conflicts of the decade include:

Terrorist attacks

The most notable terrorist attacks of the decade include:

Coups

The most prominent coups d'état of the decade include:

Nuclear threats

Decolonization and independence

Politics

Americas

Europe

Asia

Africa

Assassinations and attempts

Prominent assassinations, targeted killings, and assassination attempts include:

DateDescription
12 April 1980William R. Tolbert Jr., 20th President of Liberia, is killed during a military coup. His death marks the end of Americo-Liberian rule in Liberia.[11]
30 March 1981Ronald Reagan, 40th President of the United States, was shot in Washington, D.C. by a mentally disturbed individual. Reagan's press secretary, James Brady, was also shot, along with a police officer and a US Secret Service agent.[12]
13 May 1981Pope John Paul II is shot and wounded in Saint Peter's Square.[13]
30 May 1980Ziaur Rahman, the sixth president of Bangladesh, was assassinated by a faction of officers of Bangladesh Army, in the southeastern port city of Chittagong.[14]
30 August 1981Mohammad-Ali Rajai, 2nd President of Iran and Mohammad-Javad Bahonar, 48th Prime Minister of Iran, are both killed when a bomb explodes in Bahonar's office. Iranian officials alleges the bomb was planted by elements of the People's Mujahedin of Iran, though others allege the bombing was orchestrated by political rivals within the Islamic Republican Party.[15] [16]
6 October 1981Anwar Sadat, 3rd President of Egypt, is assassinated at a military parade in Cairo.[17]
21 August 1983Benigno Aquino Jr., a longtime political opponent of Philippine president Ferdinand Marcos, is killed after landing in the Philippines after three years of self-imposed exile.[18]
12 October 1984Margaret Thatcher, Prime Minister of the United Kingdom, avoids being the target of a bombing at a hotel orchestrated by the Provisional Irish Republican Army. The blast does kill five including Anthony Berry, an MP and Deputy Chief Whip.[19]
31 October 1984Indira Gandhi, 3rd Prime Minister of India, is assassinated by her own bodyguards in response to the Indian Army's attack on Golden Temple to destroy Sikh Militant stronghold in Amritsar earlier in the decade.[20]
28 February 1986Olof Palme, Prime Minister of Sweden, is assassinated while walking home from a cinema in Stockholm.[21]
15 October 1987Thomas Sankara, 1st President of Burkina Faso, is assassinated in a coup organized by his former colleague, Blaise Compaoré.[22]

Disasters

Natural disasters

Non-natural disasters

Science and technology

See main article: 1980s in science and technology.

Medicine and biology

The 1980s had many fundamental advances in medicine and biology. The first surrogate pregnancy of an unrelated child took place on 13 April 1986, in Michigan.[6] The first genetically modified crops, tobacco (Nicotiana) plants were grown in China in 1988.[23]

Gene therapy techniques became established by the end of the 1980s, allowing gene tagging and gene therapy to become a possibility, both of which were first performed in human beings in May 1989 and September 1990, respectively.

Electronics and computers

Arcade and video games had been growing in popularity since the late 1970s, and by 1982 were a major industry. But a variety of factors, including a glut of low-quality games and the rise of home computers, caused a tremendous crash in late 1983. For the next three years, the video game market practically ceased to exist in the US. But in the second half of the decade, it would be revived by Nintendo, whose Famicom console and mascot Mario had been enjoying considerable success in Japan since 1983. Renamed the Nintendo Entertainment System (NES), it would claim 90% of the American video game market by 1989. The 1980s are considered to be the decade when video games achieved massive popularity. In 1980, Pac-Man was introduced to the arcades, and became one of the most popular video games of all time. Also in 1980, Game & Watch was created; it was not one of the best known game systems, but it facilitated mini-games and was concurrent with the NES. Donkey Kong, released in 1981, was a smash arcade hit and market breakthrough for Nintendo. Super Mario Bros., Super Mario Bros. 2, Super Mario Bros. 3, The Legend of Zelda, and the Mega Man series would become major hits for the console.

The personal computer experienced explosive growth in the 1980s, transitioning from a hobbyist's toy to a full-fledged consumer product. The IBM PC, launched in 1981, became the dominant computer for professional users. Commodore created the most popular home computers of both 8-bit and 16-bit generations. MSX standard was the dominant computer platform in Japan and in most parts of Asia. Apple Computer superseded its Apple II and Lisa models by introducing the first Macintosh computer in 1984. It was the first commercially successful personal computer to use a graphical user interface (GUI) and mouse,[24] which started to become general features in computers after the middle of the decade. Electronics and computers were also at the forefront of the advertising industry, with many commercials like "1984" from Apple achieving acclaim and pop-culture relevance.[25]

Walkman and boomboxes, invented during the late 1970s, became very popular as they were introduced to various countries in the early 1980s, and had a profound impact on the music industry and youth culture. Consumer VCRs and video rental stores became commonplace as VHS won out over the competing Betamax standard. In addition, in the early 1980s various companies began selling compact, modestly priced synthesizers to the public. This, along with the development of Musical Instrument Digital Interface (MIDI), made it easier to integrate and synchronize synthesizers and other electronic instruments, like drum machines, for use in musical composition.

High definition television (HDTV) of both the analog and digital variety were first developed in the 1980s though their use did not become widespread until the mid-2000s.

In 1981, Hayes Microcomputer Products started selling the Smartmodem. The Smartmodem paved the way for the modern modems that exist today, mainly because it was the first modem to transform what had previously required a two-stage process into a process involving only one stage. The Smartmodem contributed to the rise in popularity of BBS systems in the 1980s and early 1990s, which were the main way to connect to remote computers and perform various social and entertainment activities before the Internet and the World Wide Web finally became popular in the mid-1990s.

The 1980s witnessed a rapid expansion in the communications industry. Almost a decade after Martin Cooper, then an employee of Motorola, made the first mobile phone call in 1973, Millicom Inc., a telecommunications agency, and E.F. Johnson & Co.,  introduced the first portable cellular phone commercially available for use on a cellular network, the "Lunch Box" in 1981.[26] [27] [28] Two years later, Motorola launched the DynaTAC 8000X or the "Brick," the first commercially available handheld mobile phone weighing 3 pounds (1.4 kg). While revolutionary, these early products were bulky and challenging to handle. This led to fierce competition in the market, with companies vying to produce a lighter, more portable phone, setting the stage for the future of mobile technology.

The race for a slimmer version of the portable cell phone was underway, and technology entrepreneur Jan Stenbeck was determined to lead the charge. Stenbeck founded the tech start-up Technophone with a singular goal in mind: to create a lightweight, pocket-sized mobile phone. In 1986, under the guidance of Technophones chief executive officer, Nils Martensson, the company unveiled the first pocket-sized mobile phone, the Excell PCT105.[29] [30]

Information technology

Space exploration

American interplanetary probes continued in the 1980s, the Voyager duo being the most known. After making a flyby of Jupiter in 1979, they went near Saturn in 1980–1981. Voyager 2 reached Uranus in 1986 (just a few days before the Challenger disaster), and Neptune in 1989 before the probes exited the Solar System.

No American probes were launched to Mars in the 1980s, and the Viking probes, launched there in 1975, completed their operations by 1982. The Soviets launched two Mars probes in 1988, but they failed.

The arrival of Halley's Comet in 1986 was met by a series of Soviet, Japanese and European Space Agency (ESA) probes, namely Halley Armada.

After a six-year hiatus, American space flights with astronauts resumed with the launch of the Space Shuttle Columbia in April 1981. The shuttle program progressed smoothly from there, with three more orbiters entering service in 1983–1985. But that all came to an end with the tragic loss of the Challenger (STS-51-L) on 28 January 1986, taking with it seven astronauts, including Christa McAuliffe, who was to have been the first teacher in space. In full view of the world, a faulty O-ring on the right solid rocket booster allowed hot gases to burn through the external fuel tank and cause it to explode, destroying the shuttle in the process. Extensive efforts were made to improve NASA's increasingly careless management practices, and to make the shuttle safer. Flights resumed with the launch of Discovery in September 1988.

The Soviet program with cosmonauts went well during the decade, experiencing only minor setbacks. The Salyut 6 space station, launched in 1977, was replaced by Salyut 7 in 1982. Then came Mir in 1986, which ended up operating for more than a decade, and was destined to be the last in the line of Soviet space stations that had begun in 1971. One of the Soviet Union's last "superprojects" was the Buran space shuttle; it was only used once, in 1988.

Automobiles

The American auto industry began in the 1980s in a thoroughly grim situation, faced with poor quality control, rising import competition, and a severe economic downturn.[31] Chrysler and American Motors (AMC) were near bankruptcy, and Ford was little better off.[32] Only General Motors (GM) continued with business as usual. But the auto makers recovered with the economy by 1983, and in 1985 auto sales in the United States hit a new record. However, the Japanese were now a major presence, and would begin manufacturing cars in the US to get around tariffs. In 1986, Hyundai became the first Korean auto maker to enter the American market. In the same year, the Yugoslavian-built Yugo was brought to the US, but the car was so small and cheap, that it became the subject of jokes. It was sold up to 1991, when economic sanctions against Yugoslavia forced its withdrawal from the American market.

As the decade progressed, cars became smaller and more efficient in design. In 1983, Ford design teams began to incorporate aerodynamic styling to decrease drag while in motion. The Thunderbird was one of the first cars to receive these design changes. In 1985, Ford released the Taurus with a design that was revolutionary among domestic mass market automobiles.

GM began suffering significant losses in the late 1980s, partially the result of chairman Roger Smith's restructuring attempts, and partially because of increasingly dated cars. An example were customers who increasingly purchased European luxury cars rather than Cadillacs. In 1985, GM started Saturn (the first new American make since the Edsel), with the goal of producing high-quality import fighters. Production would not begin until 1990.

Chrysler introduced its new compact, front-wheel drive K-cars in 1981. Under the leadership of Lee Iacocca, the company turned a profit again the following year, and by 1983 paid off its government loans. A succession of models using this automobile platform followed. The most significant were the minivans in 1984. These proved a to be popular and they would dominate the van market for more than a decade. In 1987, Chrysler purchased the Italian makes of Lamborghini and Maserati. In the same year, Chrysler bought AMC from Renault laying to rest the last significant independent US automaker, but acquiring the hugely profitable Jeep line and continuing the Eagle brand until the late 1990s.[33]

The DMC DeLorean was the brainchild of John DeLorean, a flamboyant former GM executive. Production of the gull-winged sports car began in Northern Ireland in 1981. John DeLorean was arrested in October 1982 in a sting operation where he was attempting to sell cocaine to save his struggling company. He was acquitted of all charges in 1984, but too late for the DeLorean Motor Company, which closed down in 1983. The DeLorean gained renewed fame afterward as the time machine in the Back to the Future film trilogy.

The imposition of corporate average fuel economy (CAFE) fuel-mileage standards in 1979 spelled the end of big-block engines, but performance cars and convertibles reemerged in the 1980s. Turbochargers were widely used to boost the performance of small cars, and technology from fuel injection began to take over from the widely used application of carburetors by the late 1980s. Front-wheel drive also became dominant.

The 1980s marked the decline of European brands in North America by the end of the decade. Renault, Citroën, and Peugeot ceased importation by the end of the decade. Alfa Romeo would continue until 1993. Fiat also ceased imports to North America in the 1980s.

Economics

Popular culture

Music

See main article: 1980s in music. In the United States, MTV was launched and music videos began to have a larger effect on the record industry. Pop artists/bands such as Duran Duran, Michael Jackson, Whitney Houston, Prince, Cyndi Lauper and Madonna mastered the format and helped turn this new product into a profitable business. At the beginning of the decade new wave fell from favor with the rise of the New Romantic,[37] [38] [39] new pop and synthpop genres developed by many British and American artists, popular phenomena throughout the decade especially in the early and mid-1980s. Music grew fragmented and combined into subgenres such as house, goth, and rap metal.[40] Famous music videos include those of Peter Gabriel.

The advent of numerous new technologies had a significant impact on 1980s music, and led to a distinct production aesthetic that included synthesizer sounds, drum machines and drum reverb.

Duran Duran, the biggest band of the 1980s, were leaders in the Second British Invasion, with a level of fame similar to Beatlemania by 1984. Their breakthrough album was Rio (1982). The single "Hungry Like the Wolf" was number 1 in Canada. UK number 1 singles include "Is There Something I Should Know?" and "The Reflex", which was the band's most successful single and was also number 1 in the US and on the Eurochart Hot 100. "A View to a Kill", theme song of the James Bond film, was number 1 in the US. "Notorious" was number 1 in Italy, Spain and Canada. "The Wild Boys" was number 1 in West Germany and South Africa. The band went on to sell over 100 million records and win Brit, Grammy and MTV awards.

Michael Jackson was one of the icons of the 1980s and his leather jacket, white glove, and Moonwalk dance were often imitated. Jackson's 1982 album Thriller became—and currently remains—the best-selling album of all time, with sales estimated by various sources as somewhere between 65 and 110 million copies worldwide. His 1987 album Bad sold over 45 million copies and became the first album to have five number-one singles chart on the Billboard Hot 100. Jackson had the most number-one singles throughout the decade (9), and spent the most weeks at number one (27 weeks). His 1987 Bad World Tour grossed over $125 million worldwide, making it the highest grossing world tour by a solo artist during the decade. Jackson earned numerous awards and titles during the 1980s, the most notable of which were a record eight Grammy Awards and eight American Music Awards in 1984, and the honor of "Artist of the Decade" by US President George H. W. Bush. Jackson was arguably the biggest star during this time, and would eventually sell more than one billion records around the world.

Prince was a popular star of the 1980s and the most successful chart act of the decade. His breakthrough album 1999, released in 1982, produced three top-ten hits and the album itself charted at number nine on the Billboard 200. His sixth studio album Purple Rain was an international success, boosting Prince to superstardom and selling over 25 million copies worldwide. The album produced the US number-one singles, "When Doves Cry" and "Let's Go Crazy" and sold 13 million copies in the US as of 1996. Prince released an album every year for the rest of the decade, all charting within the top ten, with the exception of Lovesexy. He went on to sell over 120 million records worldwide and win seven Grammy Awards.

Notes and References

  1. Web site: Global HIV/AIDS Overview. aids.gov. 16 April 2016.
  2. News: Lewis. Flora. FOREIGN AFFAIRS; Cold War Recedes. The New York Times. May 29, 1988.
  3. Sex-Selective Abortions During Past Three Decades May Explain Absence of Millions of Girls in India. 29 September 2011 . International Perspectives on Sexual and Reproductive Health. 37 . 162–163 . Melhado . Lisa .
  4. Book: Recent advances in pediatrics-17 . Jaypee Brothers Publishers . 1981 . 978-81-8448-103-7 . 16 April 2016.
  5. Web site: 31 July 1990 . Genetic Defect Screened Out; Healthy Twins Born . 16 April 2016 . Los Angeles Times.
  6. Web site: And Baby Makes Four: for the First Time a Surrogate Bears a Child Genetically Not Her Own . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20160423102316/http://www.people.com/people/archive/article/0,,20096199,00.html . 23 April 2016 . 16 April 2016 . people.com.
  7. Book: Brown, Ian. Research Handbook on Governance of the Internet. 2013. Edward Elgar Publishing. 978-1-84980-504-9. 7.
  8. The Diffusion of Television in India . Arvind . Singhal . J.K. . Doshi . Everett M. . Rogers . S. Adnan . Rahman . Media Asia . 1988 . 15 . 4 . 222–229 . 10.1080/01296612.1988.11726293 . 12342307 . 2015-04-18. 0129-6612 .
  9. News: 1984: The beginning of the end for British coal . London . BBC News . 20 December 2014.
  10. Book: . Strikes Around the World, 1968–2005: Case-studies of 15 Countries . Amsterdam . Amsterdam University Press . 353 . 2007 . 978-90-5260-285-1.
  11. News: Liberian Soldiers Taunt, Shoot 13 Former Leaders . . en-US . 2022-12-01 . 0190-8286.
  12. Web site: Shooting attempt throws TV industry into disarraywork=Bulletin Journal. Google News Archive Search. 2022-12-01.
  13. Web site: O'Connor . Rachael . On this day in 1981, Pope John Paul II was shot four times by an assassin . 2022-12-01 . The Irish Post.
  14. News: Bangladesh Reports Death of President Ziaur Rahman . . 30 May 1981 .
  15. Book: Newton . Michael . Famous Assassinations in World History . 17 April 2014 . ABC-CLIO . 9781610692861 . 27 . 4 November 2020 . 4 November 2021 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211104125911/https://books.google.com/books?id=F4-dAwAAQBAJ&q=1981+Iranian+Prime+Minister%27s+office+bombing+MEK&pg=PA27 . live .
  16. Book: Katzman, Kenneth . Iran: The People's Mojahedin Organization of Iran . Iran: Outlaw, Outcast, Or Normal Country? . . 2001 . Albert V. . Benliot . 978-1-56072-954-9. 101.
  17. Web site: Anwar Sadat Killed - 1981 Year in Review - Audio - UPI.com . 2022-12-01 . UPI . en.
  18. News: 1983-08-21 . 1983: Filipino opposition leader shot dead . en-GB . 2023-01-19.
  19. Web site: Patrick Magee convicted of IRA terrorist attack . 2022-12-01 . The Guardian.
  20. News: 1984-10-31 . 1984: Assassination and revenge . en-GB . 2022-12-01.
  21. Web site: Laura . Smith-Spark . Sebastian . Shukla . 2020-06-10 . Sweden closes 30-year murder mystery over killing of PM Olof Palme . 2022-12-01 . CNN . en.
  22. Web site: 2021-10-11 . Burkina Faso tries alleged killers of iconic leader Sankara . Deutsche Welle. 2022-12-01 . 2021-10-11 . https://web.archive.org/web/20211011205334/https://www.dw.com/en/burkina-faso-tries-alleged-killers-of-iconic-leader-sankara/av-59474289 . dead .
  23. Web site: The Anthropology of Genetically Modified Crops . 2015-10-01 . https://web.archive.org/web/20140422062254/http://artsci.wustl.edu/~anthro/research/stone/stone-annualreview-2010.pdf . 2014-04-22 . dead .
  24. Web site: Polsson . Ken . Chronology of Apple Computer Personal Computers . 2009-07-29 . 2009-08-27 . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20090821105822/http://www.islandnet.com/~kpolsson/applehis/appl1984.htm . 21 August 2009 . See May 3, 1984.
  25. Web site: Best 80s Commercials that are Totally Tubular! (VIDEOS). 9 September 2020. Frahm Digital.
  26. Dunnewijk, Theo; Hultén, Staffan (2007-08-01). "A brief history of mobile communication in Europe". Telematics and Informatics. Mobile Communications: From Cellular to Ad-hoc and Beyond. 24(3): 164–179. doi:10.1016/j.tele.2007.01.013. ISSN 0736-5853.
  27. Book: Agar, Jon . Constant touch: a global history of the mobile phone . 2003 . Icon Books . 978-1-84046-541-9 . Reprint . Revolutions in science . Cambridge.
  28. Web site: 2024-12-23 . Martin Cooper Biography, Inventions, & Facts Britannica . 2024-12-31 . www.britannica.com . en.
  29. Becket, Michael. "Excell unveils new portable telephone." Daily Telegraph, 13 July 1987, p. 20. The Telegraph Historical Archive, Accessed 25 Oct. 2024.
  30. Web site: 2014-11-18 . Vintage Mobiles . 2024-12-31 . GSM History: History of GSM, Mobile Networks, Vintage Mobiles . en-US.
  31. Detroit's Uphill Battle . https://web.archive.org/web/20071130033908/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,924408-8,00.html . dead . 30 November 2007 . Time . 1980-09-08 . Alexander . Taylor . Christopher . Redman . Barrett . Seaman . 2015-04-18.
  32. Alexander . Taylor . Christopher . Redman . Detroit's Road Is Still Rocky . https://web.archive.org/web/20121105153045/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,922223-2,00.html. dead. November 5, 2012. Time . 1980-12-15 . 2015-04-18.
  33. News: Holusha . John . Chrysler is Buying American Motors; Cost is $1.5 billion . The New York Times . 1987-03-10 . 2015-04-18.
  34. Web site: Inflation and CPI Consumer Price Index 1980–1989. InflationData.com. 3 January 2015.
  35. "The Next Hundred Years", George Friedman, 2009, pg 4
  36. "The Next Hundred Years", George Friedman, 2009, pg 45
  37. Book: Christgau, Robert. Robert Christgau. 1990. Christgau's Record Guide: The '80s. Glossary. Pantheon Books. 0-679-73015-X. new wave: a polite term devised to reassure people who were scared by punk, it enjoyed a two- or three-year run but was falling from favor as the '80s began.
  38. News: The Tuscaloosa News. Rolling Stone Random Notes. Loder. Kurt. Kurt Loder. 17 July 1981. Pity the natty Anglo-dandies of Japan. Too late for the glam-rock movement, reviled in the New Wave era, these veteran fops — led by David "The Most Beautiful Man in the World" Sylvian — would seem made to order for the age of the clothes-conscious New Romantic bands.. Google News Archive.
  39. Web site: ministryofrock.co.uk. New Wave Music in The 70s. Nickson. Chris. Chris Nickson. 25 September 2012. New Wave survived through the post-punk years, but after the turn of the decade found itself overwhelmed by the more outrageous style of the New Romantics..
  40. News: 'Like, Omigod!' It's the return of the '80s . The New York Times . 2002-08-22 . 2013-03-22 . Todd . Leopold . dead . https://web.archive.org/web/20131104212110/http://www-cgi.cnn.com/2002/SHOWBIZ/Music/08/21/omigod.80s/index.html . 2013-11-04 .

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